Biogeography

  1. Historical Biogeography
    1. Earth's Dynamic History
      1. Plate Tectonics and Continental Drift
        1. Structure of Earth's Crust
          1. Continental Crust
            1. Oceanic Crust
              1. Lithospheric Plates
              2. Mechanisms of Plate Movement
                1. Convection Currents
                  1. Seafloor Spreading
                    1. Subduction Zones
                    2. Supercontinent Cycles
                      1. Pangaea Formation and Breakup
                        1. Timeline of Continental Separation
                          1. Effects on Species Distributions
                          2. Major Continental Masses
                            1. Gondwana
                              1. Laurasia
                                1. Biotic Consequences of Separation
                                2. Formation of Geographic Features
                                  1. Land Bridges
                                    1. Mountain Ranges
                                      1. Ocean Basins
                                        1. Oceanic Barriers
                                      2. Paleoclimatology
                                        1. Methods of Climate Reconstruction
                                          1. Ice Core Analysis
                                            1. Pollen Records
                                              1. Marine Sediment Cores
                                                1. Tree Ring Analysis
                                                  1. Coral Growth Bands
                                                  2. Glacial and Interglacial Cycles
                                                    1. Pleistocene Glaciations
                                                      1. Milankovitch Cycles
                                                        1. Effects on Flora and Fauna
                                                          1. Refugia Formation
                                                          2. Major Climate Change Events
                                                            1. Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum
                                                              1. Oligocene Cooling
                                                                1. Pliocene Warming
                                                                  1. Quaternary Ice Ages
                                                                  2. Climate-Driven Extinctions
                                                                    1. Mass Extinction Events
                                                                      1. Biome Shifts
                                                                        1. Habitat Fragmentation
                                                                    2. Processes Shaping Species Distributions
                                                                      1. Evolution as Biogeographic Force
                                                                        1. Speciation Mechanisms
                                                                          1. Allopatric Speciation
                                                                            1. Geographic Isolation
                                                                              1. Population Divergence
                                                                                1. Reproductive Isolation
                                                                                2. Peripatric Speciation
                                                                                  1. Founder Effects
                                                                                    1. Small Population Dynamics
                                                                                    2. Parapatric Speciation
                                                                                      1. Limited Gene Flow
                                                                                        1. Environmental Gradients
                                                                                        2. Sympatric Speciation
                                                                                          1. Ecological Specialization
                                                                                            1. Polyploidy in Plants
                                                                                              1. Chromosomal Rearrangements
                                                                                            2. Adaptive Radiation
                                                                                              1. Colonization of New Habitats
                                                                                                1. Evolution of Novel Traits
                                                                                                  1. Ecological Opportunity
                                                                                                    1. Key Innovations
                                                                                                  2. Extinction Processes
                                                                                                    1. Background Extinction
                                                                                                      1. Natural Species Turnover
                                                                                                        1. Local Extinctions
                                                                                                          1. Pseudoextinction
                                                                                                          2. Mass Extinction Events
                                                                                                            1. Ordovician-Silurian Extinction
                                                                                                              1. Late Devonian Extinction
                                                                                                                1. Permian-Triassic Extinction
                                                                                                                  1. Triassic-Jurassic Extinction
                                                                                                                    1. Cretaceous-Paleogene Extinction
                                                                                                                      1. Biogeographic Consequences
                                                                                                                    2. Dispersal Mechanisms
                                                                                                                      1. Active Dispersal
                                                                                                                        1. Animal Locomotion
                                                                                                                          1. Seasonal Migration
                                                                                                                            1. Natal Dispersal
                                                                                                                              1. Breeding Dispersal
                                                                                                                              2. Passive Dispersal
                                                                                                                                1. Wind Dispersal
                                                                                                                                  1. Water Dispersal
                                                                                                                                    1. Animal-Mediated Dispersal
                                                                                                                                      1. Rafting Events
                                                                                                                                      2. Dispersal Routes
                                                                                                                                        1. Corridors
                                                                                                                                          1. Filters
                                                                                                                                            1. Sweepstakes Routes
                                                                                                                                            2. Barriers to Dispersal
                                                                                                                                              1. Physical Barriers
                                                                                                                                                1. Climatic Barriers
                                                                                                                                                  1. Ecological Barriers
                                                                                                                                                2. Vicariance Events
                                                                                                                                                  1. Geological Vicariance
                                                                                                                                                    1. Mountain Building
                                                                                                                                                      1. Sea Level Changes
                                                                                                                                                        1. Continental Drift
                                                                                                                                                        2. Climatic Vicariance
                                                                                                                                                          1. Climate Shifts
                                                                                                                                                            1. Habitat Fragmentation
                                                                                                                                                            2. Testing Vicariance vs Dispersal
                                                                                                                                                              1. Phylogenetic Evidence
                                                                                                                                                                1. Fossil Evidence
                                                                                                                                                                  1. Molecular Clock Analysis
                                                                                                                                                              2. Centers of Origin and Diversification
                                                                                                                                                                1. Identifying Centers of Origin
                                                                                                                                                                  1. Fossil Evidence
                                                                                                                                                                    1. Phylogenetic Methods
                                                                                                                                                                      1. Molecular Dating
                                                                                                                                                                        1. Biogeographic Analysis
                                                                                                                                                                        2. Refugia Concepts
                                                                                                                                                                          1. Glacial Refugia
                                                                                                                                                                            1. Location Identification
                                                                                                                                                                              1. Characteristics
                                                                                                                                                                                1. Postglacial Recolonization
                                                                                                                                                                                2. Climatic Refugia
                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Stable Climate Areas
                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Microrefugia
                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Topographic Refugia
                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Mountain Refugia
                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Valley Refugia
                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Aquatic Refugia
                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Lake Refugia
                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Spring Refugia

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                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Introduction to Biogeography

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                                                                                                                                                                                      3. Ecological Biogeography