Antibiotics and Antimicrobial Resistance

Antibiotics are a class of antimicrobial drugs used to treat and prevent bacterial infections by killing the bacteria or inhibiting their growth. The widespread use and misuse of these medicines, however, has dramatically accelerated the natural evolutionary phenomenon of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), where bacteria and other microbes develop mechanisms to survive exposure to drugs that were once effective. This resistance renders infections progressively more difficult or impossible to treat, posing a severe threat to global public health by undermining modern medicine and leading to higher mortality rates, prolonged illness, and increased healthcare costs.

1. Foundations of Microbiology and Antimicrobials
   1. Introduction to Microorganisms
      1. Bacteria
         1. Bacterial Classification Systems
            1. Taxonomic hierarchy
            2. Phylogenetic classification
            3. Clinical classification schemes
         2. Gram Staining and Cell Wall Structure
            1. Gram-positive bacteria characteristics
            2. Gram-negative bacteria characteristics
            3. Peptidoglycan layer differences
         3. Bacterial Cell Structure and Components
            1. Cell wall composition and function
            2. Cell membrane structure and permeability
            3. Cytoplasm and cellular contents
            4. Nucleoid organization
            5. Plasmid types and functions
            6. Ribosome structure and function
            7. Flagella and motility
            8. Pili and adhesion structures
         4. Bacterial Growth and Reproduction
            1. Binary fission process
            2. Growth phases and kinetics
            3. Environmental factors affecting growth
            4. Biofilm formation
      2. Fungi
         1. Fungal Classification
            1. Major fungal phyla
            2. Yeast versus mold morphology
         2. Fungal Cell Structure
            1. Cell wall composition
            2. Membrane structure
            3. Organelles and cellular components
         3. Pathogenic Fungi
            1. Opportunistic pathogens
            2. Primary pathogens
            3. Antifungal resistance mechanisms
      3. Viruses
         1. Viral Structure and Components
            1. Capsid structure
            2. Envelope characteristics
            3. Genetic material organization
         2. Viral Replication Cycles
            1. Lytic cycle
            2. Lysogenic cycle
            3. Replication strategies
         3. Virus Classification
            1. DNA viruses
            2. RNA viruses
            3. Retroviruses
      4. Protozoa
         1. Protozoan Classification
            1. Major groups and characteristics
            2. Life cycle variations
         2. Protozoan Cell Structure
            1. Membrane systems
            2. Organelles and specialized structures
         3. Pathogenic Protozoa
            1. Disease mechanisms
            2. Drug resistance patterns
   2. Historical Development of Antimicrobials
      1. Pre-Antibiotic Era
         1. Traditional infection treatments
         2. Mortality from infectious diseases
         3. Early antiseptic practices
      2. Paul Ehrlich and Chemotherapy Principles
         1. Selective toxicity concept
         2. Development of Salvarsan
         3. Early synthetic antimicrobials
      3. Alexander Fleming and Penicillin Discovery
         1. Serendipitous discovery
         2. Initial observations and experiments
         3. Early clinical applications
      4. Golden Age of Antibiotic Discovery
         1. Major antibiotic classes discovered
         2. Impact on medical practice
         3. Societal transformation
   3. Antimicrobial Agent Categories
      1. Antibiotics
         1. Definition and scope
         2. Natural antibiotics
         3. Semi-synthetic modifications
         4. Fully synthetic antibiotics
      2. Antifungal Agents
         1. Polyenes
         2. Azoles
         3. Echinocandins
         4. Other antifungal classes
      3. Antiviral Agents
         1. Nucleoside analogs
         2. Protease inhibitors
         3. Entry inhibitors
         4. Other antiviral mechanisms
      4. Antiseptics and Disinfectants
         1. Chemical classes
         2. Mechanisms of microbial killing
         3. Applications and limitations