Antibiotics and Antimicrobial Resistance

5.

Drivers and Epidemiology of Antimicrobial Resistance

5.1.

Human Medicine Factors

5.1.1.

Prescribing Practices

5.1.1.1.

Inappropriate antibiotic selection

5.1.1.2.

Incorrect dosing regimens

5.1.1.3.

Unnecessary broad-spectrum use

5.1.1.4.

Viral infection treatment

5.1.2.

Patient Factors

5.1.2.1.

Non-adherence to therapy

5.1.2.2.

Self-medication practices

5.1.2.3.

Incomplete treatment courses

5.1.2.4.

Over-the-counter availability

5.1.3.

Healthcare System Factors

5.1.3.1.

Diagnostic limitations

5.1.3.2.

Empirical therapy practices

5.1.3.3.

Hospital antibiotic policies

5.2.

Agricultural and Veterinary Use

5.2.1.

Growth Promotion Applications

5.2.1.1.

Subtherapeutic dosing

5.2.1.2.

Long-term exposure

5.2.2.

Disease Prevention and Treatment

5.2.2.1.

Mass medication practices

5.2.2.2.

Prophylactic use protocols

5.2.3.

Transmission Pathways

5.2.3.1.

Food chain contamination

5.2.3.2.

Direct animal contact

5.2.3.3.

Environmental dissemination

5.3.

Environmental Factors

5.3.1.

Pharmaceutical Manufacturing

5.3.1.1.

Antibiotic residue discharge

5.3.1.2.

Concentration effects

5.3.2.

Waste Management

5.3.2.1.

Human sewage systems

5.3.2.2.

Animal waste disposal

5.3.2.3.

Treatment plant efficiency

5.3.3.

Environmental Reservoirs

5.3.3.1.

Soil microorganisms

5.3.3.2.

5.3.3.3.

Wildlife populations

5.4.

Socioeconomic and Global Factors

5.4.1.

Infrastructure Limitations

5.4.1.1.

Water and sanitation access

5.4.1.2.

Healthcare system capacity

5.4.2.

Globalization Effects

5.4.2.1.

International travel

5.4.2.2.

Trade and commerce

5.4.2.3.

Migration patterns

5.4.3.

Regulatory Frameworks

5.4.3.1.

Policy enforcement

5.4.3.2.

International coordination

5.4.4.

Economic Disparities

5.4.4.1.

Access to quality antibiotics

5.4.4.2.

Counterfeit drug markets

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4. Biochemical Mechanisms of Resistance

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6. Clinical and Public Health Impact of AMR