Ornithology

2.

Avian Anatomy and Physiology

2.1.

Skeletal System

2.1.1.

Flight Adaptations

2.1.1.1.

Lightweight Bone Structure

2.1.1.2.

Rigid Framework for Flight

2.1.1.3.

Bone Fusion Patterns

2.1.2.

Pneumatic Bones

2.1.2.1.

Air-filled Cavities

2.1.2.2.

Connection to Respiratory System

2.1.2.3.

Weight Reduction Benefits

2.1.3.

Specialized Bone Structures

2.1.3.1.

2.1.3.2.

2.1.3.3.

Tarsometatarsus

2.1.3.4.

2.1.3.5.

Furcula Structure and Function

2.2.

Integumentary System

2.2.1.

Feather Structure and Composition

2.2.1.1.

Keratin Composition

2.2.1.2.

Feather Components

2.2.1.2.1.

2.2.1.2.2.

2.2.1.2.3.

2.2.1.2.4.

2.2.1.2.5.

2.2.2.

2.2.2.1.

Contour Feathers

2.2.2.2.

2.2.2.3.

2.2.2.4.

2.2.2.5.

2.2.3.

Feather Distribution

2.2.3.1.

Pterylae (Feather Tracts)

2.2.3.2.

Apteria (Bare Patches)

2.2.4.

Molt and Plumage Cycles

2.2.4.1.

2.2.4.1.1.

Sequential Molt

2.2.4.1.2.

Simultaneous Molt

2.2.4.2.

Plumage Variation

2.2.4.2.1.

Age-related Changes

2.2.4.2.2.

Sexual Dimorphism

2.2.4.2.3.

Seasonal Plumage Changes

2.3.

Muscular System

2.3.1.

Flight Musculature

2.3.1.1.

Pectoralis Major

2.3.1.2.

Supracoracoideus

2.3.1.3.

Wing Control Muscles

2.3.2.

Locomotory Muscles

2.3.2.1.

2.3.2.2.

Perching Mechanism

2.3.2.3.

Flexor Tendon System

2.4.

Digestive System

2.4.1.

Bill Morphology and Function

2.4.1.1.

Bill Shape Adaptations

2.4.1.2.

Feeding Specializations

2.4.2.

Digestive Tract Components

2.4.2.1.

2.4.2.2.

2.4.2.3.

2.4.2.4.

Gizzard Structure and Function

2.4.2.5.

Small Intestine

2.4.2.6.

2.4.2.7.

2.5.

Respiratory System

2.5.1.

Unique Airflow Pattern

2.5.1.1.

Unidirectional Airflow

2.5.1.2.

Airflow Pathway Through System

2.5.2.

Respiratory Structures

2.5.2.1.

2.5.2.2.

2.5.2.2.1.

Anterior Air Sacs

2.5.2.2.2.

Posterior Air Sacs

2.5.3.

Gas Exchange Efficiency

2.5.3.1.

Cross-current Exchange Mechanism

2.5.3.2.

High Oxygen Extraction

2.6.

Circulatory System

2.6.1.

Heart Structure

2.6.1.1.

Four-chambered Heart

2.6.1.2.

Cardiac Output Adaptations

2.6.2.

Circulatory Adaptations

2.6.2.1.

High Blood Pressure

2.6.2.2.

Rapid Heart Rate

2.6.2.3.

Metabolic Support for Flight

2.7.

Excretory System

2.7.1.

Kidney Function

2.7.1.1.

Uric Acid Production

2.7.1.2.

Water Conservation Mechanisms

2.7.2.

2.7.2.1.

Location and Structure

2.7.2.2.

Function in Marine Birds

2.7.2.3.

Salt Excretion Process

2.8.

Nervous System and Sensory Organs

2.8.1.

Brain Structure

2.8.1.1.

Relative Brain Size

2.8.1.2.

Cognitive Abilities

2.8.1.3.

Problem-solving Capacity

2.8.2.

2.8.2.1.

Eye Structure and Size

2.8.2.2.

2.8.2.3.

2.8.2.4.

Ultraviolet Perception

2.8.2.5.

Monocular and Binocular Vision

2.8.2.6.

Foveal Structure

2.8.3.

Auditory System

2.8.3.1.

2.8.3.2.

Sound Localization

2.8.3.3.

Asymmetrical Ear Openings

2.8.4.

Olfactory System

2.8.4.1.

Olfactory Bulb Development

2.8.4.2.

Role in Foraging

2.8.4.3.

Navigation Applications

2.8.5.

Magnetoreception

2.8.5.1.

Magnetic Sensing Mechanisms

2.8.5.2.

Navigation Applications

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1. Introduction to Ornithology

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3. Avian Evolution and Systematics