Metallurgy

8.

Non-Ferrous Metallurgy

8.1.

Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys

8.1.1.

Aluminum Production

8.1.1.1.

8.1.1.1.1.

Bauxite Processing

8.1.1.1.2.

Alumina Production

8.1.1.2.

Hall-Héroult Process

8.1.1.2.1.

Electrolytic Cell Design

8.1.1.2.2.

Carbon Anode Consumption

8.1.2.

Aluminum Alloy Systems

8.1.2.1.

Wrought Alloy Designations

8.1.2.1.1.

1xxx Series (Pure Aluminum)

8.1.2.1.2.

2xxx Series (Aluminum-Copper)

8.1.2.1.3.

3xxx Series (Aluminum-Manganese)

8.1.2.1.4.

4xxx Series (Aluminum-Silicon)

8.1.2.1.5.

5xxx Series (Aluminum-Magnesium)

8.1.2.1.6.

6xxx Series (Aluminum-Magnesium-Silicon)

8.1.2.1.7.

7xxx Series (Aluminum-Zinc)

8.1.2.1.8.

8xxx Series (Other Elements)

8.1.2.2.

Casting Alloy Designations

8.1.3.

Heat Treatment of Aluminum Alloys

8.1.3.1.

Solution Heat Treatment

8.1.3.2.

8.1.3.3.

8.1.3.4.

Artificial Aging

8.1.3.5.

Temper Designations

8.1.4.

Properties and Applications

8.1.4.1.

Strength-to-Weight Ratio

8.1.4.2.

Corrosion Resistance

8.1.4.3.

Thermal Conductivity

8.1.4.4.

Electrical Conductivity

8.2.

Copper and Copper Alloys

8.2.1.

Copper Production

8.2.1.1.

Pyrometallurgical Route

8.2.1.1.1.

Smelting and Converting

8.2.1.1.2.

8.2.1.2.

Hydrometallurgical Route

8.2.1.2.1.

Leaching and Solvent Extraction

8.2.1.2.2.

8.2.1.3.

Electrorefining

8.2.2.

Copper Alloy Classifications

8.2.2.1.

8.2.2.1.1.

8.2.2.1.2.

Alpha-Beta Brasses

8.2.2.1.3.

8.2.2.2.

8.2.2.2.1.

8.2.2.2.2.

Aluminum Bronzes

8.2.2.2.3.

Silicon Bronzes

8.2.2.2.4.

Beryllium Copper

8.2.2.3.

Copper-Nickel Alloys

8.2.3.

Properties and Applications

8.2.3.1.

Electrical Conductivity

8.2.3.2.

Thermal Conductivity

8.2.3.3.

Corrosion Resistance

8.2.3.4.

Antimicrobial Properties

8.3.

Titanium and Titanium Alloys

8.3.1.

Titanium Production

8.3.1.1.

8.3.1.1.1.

Titanium Tetrachloride Production

8.3.1.1.2.

Magnesium Reduction

8.3.1.2.

Alternative Production Methods

8.3.2.

Titanium Alloy Classifications

8.3.2.1.

8.3.2.1.1.

Commercially Pure Titanium

8.3.2.1.2.

Alpha Alloy Compositions

8.3.2.2.

8.3.2.2.1.

Beta Stabilizers

8.3.2.2.2.

Metastable Beta Alloys

8.3.2.3.

Alpha-Beta Alloys

8.3.2.3.1.

8.3.2.3.2.

Other Alpha-Beta Compositions

8.3.3.

Heat Treatment of Titanium Alloys

8.3.3.1.

8.3.3.2.

Solution Treatment and Aging

8.3.3.3.

Beta Processing

8.3.4.

Properties and Applications

8.3.4.1.

High Strength-to-Weight Ratio

8.3.4.2.

Corrosion Resistance

8.3.4.3.

Biocompatibility

8.3.4.4.

High-Temperature Properties

8.4.

Nickel and Nickel Alloys

8.4.1.

Nickel Production

8.4.1.1.

Pyrometallurgical Processing

8.4.1.2.

Hydrometallurgical Processing

8.4.1.3.

Carbonyl Process

8.4.2.

Nickel Alloy Classifications

8.4.2.1.

Commercially Pure Nickel

8.4.2.2.

Nickel-Copper Alloys

8.4.2.3.

Nickel-Chromium Alloys

8.4.2.4.

8.4.2.4.1.

Nickel-Based Superalloys

8.4.2.4.2.

Cobalt-Based Superalloys

8.4.2.4.3.

Iron-Based Superalloys

8.4.3.

Superalloy Strengthening Mechanisms

8.4.3.1.

Solid Solution Strengthening

8.4.3.2.

Precipitation Hardening

8.4.3.3.

Carbide Strengthening

8.4.4.

Properties and Applications

8.4.4.1.

High-Temperature Strength

8.4.4.2.

Oxidation Resistance

8.4.4.3.

Corrosion Resistance

8.5.

Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys

8.5.1.

Magnesium Production

8.5.1.1.

Electrolytic Process

8.5.1.2.

Thermal Reduction Process

8.5.2.

Magnesium Alloy Systems

8.5.2.1.

AZ Series (Mg-Al-Zn)

8.5.2.2.

AM Series (Mg-Al-Mn)

8.5.2.3.

ZK Series (Mg-Zn-Zr)

8.5.3.

Processing Considerations

8.5.3.1.

Flammability Issues

8.5.3.2.

Protective Atmospheres

8.5.3.3.

Die Casting Applications

8.5.4.

Properties and Applications

8.5.4.1.

Lowest Density Structural Metal

8.5.4.2.

Electromagnetic Shielding

8.5.4.3.

Vibration Damping

8.6.

Zinc and Zinc Alloys

8.6.1.

Zinc Production

8.6.1.1.

Pyrometallurgical Route

8.6.1.2.

Hydrometallurgical Route

8.6.2.

Zinc Alloy Applications

8.6.2.1.

Die Casting Alloys

8.6.2.2.

8.6.2.3.

Brass Production

8.6.3.

Properties and Applications

8.6.3.1.

Corrosion Protection

8.6.3.2.

Die Casting Properties

8.7.

Lead and Lead Alloys

8.7.1.

Lead Production

8.7.1.1.

Primary Production from Ores

8.7.1.2.

Secondary Production from Scrap

8.7.2.

Lead Alloy Applications

8.7.2.1.

Battery Applications

8.7.2.2.

Radiation Shielding

8.7.2.3.

Soldering Alloys

8.8.

Tin and Tin Alloys

8.8.1.

8.8.2.

Tin Alloy Applications

8.8.2.1.

Soldering Alloys

8.8.2.2.

8.8.2.3.

8.9.

Refractory Metals

8.9.1.

8.9.1.1.

Powder Metallurgy Production

8.9.1.2.

Properties and Applications

8.9.1.2.1.

Filament Applications

8.9.1.2.2.

8.9.1.2.3.

Radiation Shielding

8.9.2.

8.9.2.1.

Production Methods

8.9.2.2.

Properties and Applications

8.9.2.2.1.

High-Temperature Applications

8.9.2.2.2.

Electronic Applications

8.9.3.

8.9.3.1.

Production and Refining

8.9.3.2.

Corrosion Resistance

8.9.3.3.

Electronic Applications

8.9.4.

8.9.4.1.

Production Methods

8.9.4.2.

Superconducting Applications

8.9.4.3.

8.10.

Precious Metals

8.10.1.

8.10.1.1.

Extraction Methods

8.10.1.1.1.

8.10.1.1.2.

8.10.1.1.3.

Cyanide Leaching

8.10.1.2.

Refining Processes

8.10.1.3.

Properties and Applications

8.10.1.3.1.

8.10.1.3.2.

8.10.1.3.3.

Dental Applications

8.10.2.

8.10.2.1.

Production as Byproduct

8.10.2.2.

Refining Methods

8.10.2.3.

Properties and Applications

8.10.2.3.1.

8.10.2.3.2.

8.10.2.3.3.

Antimicrobial Applications

8.10.3.

Platinum Group Metals

8.10.3.1.

8.10.3.1.1.

Extraction and Refining

8.10.3.1.2.

Catalytic Applications

8.10.3.1.3.

Jewelry Applications

8.10.3.2.

8.10.3.2.1.

Automotive Catalysts

8.10.3.2.2.

8.10.3.3.

8.10.3.3.1.

Catalytic Applications

8.10.3.3.2.

Plating Applications

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9. Corrosion and Degradation of Metals