Metallurgy

6.

Process Metallurgy and Manufacturing

6.1.

Casting and Solidification Processing

6.1.1.

Principles of Metal Casting

6.1.1.1.

Heat Transfer During Solidification

6.1.1.2.

Shrinkage Compensation

6.1.1.3.

Feeding and Risering

6.1.2.

Casting Processes

6.1.2.1.

6.1.2.1.1.

Green Sand Molding

6.1.2.1.2.

Dry Sand Molding

6.1.2.1.3.

Pattern Design and Materials

6.1.2.1.4.

6.1.2.2.

Investment Casting

6.1.2.2.1.

Wax Pattern Production

6.1.2.2.2.

6.1.2.2.3.

Dewaxing and Firing

6.1.2.3.

6.1.2.3.1.

Hot Chamber Die Casting

6.1.2.3.2.

Cold Chamber Die Casting

6.1.2.3.3.

Die Design Considerations

6.1.2.4.

Permanent Mold Casting

6.1.2.5.

Centrifugal Casting

6.1.2.6.

Continuous Casting

6.1.2.6.1.

Process Description

6.1.2.6.2.

Advantages over Ingot Casting

6.1.3.

Solidification Control

6.1.3.1.

Directional Solidification

6.1.3.2.

Chill Placement

6.1.3.3.

6.1.3.4.

Grain Refinement

6.1.4.

Casting Defects

6.1.4.1.

6.1.4.1.1.

Causes and Prevention

6.1.4.2.

Shrinkage Defects

6.1.4.2.1.

6.1.4.2.2.

6.1.4.3.

6.1.4.3.1.

Oxide Inclusions

6.1.4.3.2.

Sand Inclusions

6.1.4.4.

Hot Tears and Cold Shuts

6.1.4.5.

Misruns and Cold Laps

6.2.

Metal Forming and Shaping

6.2.1.

Fundamentals of Metal Forming

6.2.1.1.

Plastic Flow in Forming

6.2.1.2.

Strain Rate Effects

6.2.1.3.

Temperature Effects

6.2.2.

Hot Working vs. Cold Working

6.2.2.1.

Microstructural Changes

6.2.2.2.

Property Changes

6.2.2.3.

Advantages and Disadvantages

6.2.3.

6.2.3.1.

Open Die Forging

6.2.3.1.1.

Equipment and Processes

6.2.3.2.

Closed Die Forging

6.2.3.2.1.

6.2.3.2.2.

Flash Formation

6.2.3.3.

6.2.3.4.

Press Forging vs. Hammer Forging

6.2.4.

6.2.4.1.

6.2.4.1.1.

6.2.4.1.2.

Rolling Parameters

6.2.4.2.

6.2.4.2.1.

Structural Shapes

6.2.4.2.2.

6.2.4.3.

6.2.4.4.

6.2.5.

6.2.5.1.

Direct Extrusion

6.2.5.1.1.

Process Description

6.2.5.1.2.

6.2.5.2.

Indirect Extrusion

6.2.5.3.

Impact Extrusion

6.2.5.4.

Hydrostatic Extrusion

6.2.6.

6.2.6.1.

6.2.6.1.1.

6.2.6.1.2.

Drawing Sequence

6.2.6.2.

6.2.6.2.1.

With and Without Mandrel

6.2.6.3.

6.2.6.3.1.

6.2.6.3.2.

Limiting Drawing Ratio

6.2.7.

Sheet Metal Forming

6.2.7.1.

6.2.7.2.

6.2.7.3.

6.2.7.4.

6.2.8.

Forming Defects

6.2.8.1.

Surface Defects

6.2.8.2.

Internal Defects

6.2.8.3.

Dimensional Variations

6.3.

Powder Metallurgy

6.3.1.

Powder Production Methods

6.3.1.1.

6.3.1.1.1.

Water Atomization

6.3.1.1.2.

Gas Atomization

6.3.1.1.3.

Centrifugal Atomization

6.3.1.2.

Mechanical Methods

6.3.1.2.1.

6.3.1.2.2.

Mechanical Alloying

6.3.1.3.

Chemical Methods

6.3.1.3.1.

Reduction of Oxides

6.3.1.3.2.

Precipitation from Solutions

6.3.1.3.3.

Electrolytic Deposition

6.3.2.

Powder Characterization

6.3.2.1.

Particle Size Distribution

6.3.2.1.1.

6.3.2.1.2.

Sedimentation Methods

6.3.2.1.3.

Light Scattering Methods

6.3.2.2.

Particle Shape Analysis

6.3.2.3.

Surface Area Measurement

6.3.2.4.

Flowability Testing

6.3.2.5.

Apparent Density

6.3.3.

Powder Compaction

6.3.3.1.

6.3.3.1.1.

Single-Action Pressing

6.3.3.1.2.

Double-Action Pressing

6.3.3.2.

Isostatic Pressing

6.3.3.2.1.

Cold Isostatic Pressing

6.3.3.2.2.

Hot Isostatic Pressing

6.3.3.3.

Powder Injection Molding

6.3.4.

6.3.4.1.

Solid-State Sintering

6.3.4.1.1.

6.3.4.1.2.

Sintering Mechanisms

6.3.4.1.3.

Densification and Grain Growth

6.3.4.2.

Liquid Phase Sintering

6.3.4.2.1.

Wetting and Spreading

6.3.4.2.2.

Solution-Reprecipitation

6.3.4.3.

Sintering Atmospheres

6.3.4.3.1.

Protective Atmospheres

6.3.4.3.2.

Reducing Atmospheres

6.3.4.4.

Sintering Equipment

6.3.5.

Secondary Operations

6.3.5.1.

Sizing and Coining

6.3.5.2.

6.3.5.3.

6.3.5.4.

6.3.6.

Applications and Advantages

6.3.6.1.

Automotive Components

6.3.6.2.

Aerospace Applications

6.3.6.3.

6.3.6.4.

Magnetic Materials

6.4.

Welding and Joining

6.4.1.

Fundamentals of Welding

6.4.1.1.

Heat Sources in Welding

6.4.1.2.

Weld Pool Dynamics

6.4.1.3.

Solidification in Welds

6.4.2.

Arc Welding Processes

6.4.2.1.

Shielded Metal Arc Welding

6.4.2.1.1.

Electrode Types

6.4.2.1.2.

Welding Parameters

6.4.2.2.

Gas Metal Arc Welding

6.4.2.2.1.

Shielding Gases

6.4.2.2.2.

Metal Transfer Modes

6.4.2.3.

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

6.4.2.3.1.

Electrode Selection

6.4.2.3.2.

Filler Metal Selection

6.4.2.4.

Submerged Arc Welding

6.4.2.5.

Flux-Cored Arc Welding

6.4.3.

High-Energy Density Welding

6.4.3.1.

6.4.3.1.1.

6.4.3.1.2.

Process Parameters

6.4.3.2.

Electron Beam Welding

6.4.3.2.1.

Vacuum Requirements

6.4.3.2.2.

Deep Penetration Welding

6.4.4.

Resistance Welding

6.4.4.1.

6.4.4.2.

6.4.4.3.

Projection Welding

6.4.5.

Solid-State Welding

6.4.5.1.

Friction Welding

6.4.5.1.1.

Rotary Friction Welding

6.4.5.1.2.

Linear Friction Welding

6.4.5.2.

Friction Stir Welding

6.4.5.3.

Diffusion Welding

6.4.5.4.

Explosive Welding

6.4.6.

Brazing and Soldering

6.4.6.1.

Brazing Processes

6.4.6.1.1.

6.4.6.1.2.

Furnace Brazing

6.4.6.1.3.

Induction Brazing

6.4.6.2.

Brazing Filler Metals

6.4.6.3.

Soldering Processes

6.4.6.4.

Soldering Alloys

6.4.7.

Weld Metallurgy

6.4.7.1.

Heat-Affected Zone

6.4.7.1.1.

Microstructural Changes

6.4.7.1.2.

Property Changes

6.4.7.2.

Weld Metal Solidification

6.4.7.3.

Residual Stresses

6.4.8.

Welding Defects

6.4.8.1.

6.4.8.2.

6.4.8.3.

6.4.8.4.

Lack of Penetration

6.4.8.5.

6.4.8.5.1.

6.4.8.5.2.

6.5.

Heat Treatment of Metals

6.5.1.

Principles of Heat Treatment

6.5.1.1.

Phase Transformations During Heating

6.5.1.2.

Phase Transformations During Cooling

6.5.1.3.

Kinetics of Transformations

6.5.2.

Annealing Processes

6.5.2.1.

6.5.2.1.1.

Heating and Cooling Cycles

6.5.2.1.2.

Microstructural Changes

6.5.2.2.

Process Annealing

6.5.2.2.1.

6.5.2.2.2.

Recrystallization

6.5.2.3.

6.5.2.3.1.

Air Cooling Effects

6.5.2.3.2.

Grain Refinement

6.5.2.4.

6.5.2.4.1.

Carbide Spheroidization

6.5.3.

Hardening Processes

6.5.3.1.

6.5.3.1.1.

Temperature Selection

6.5.3.1.2.

Time at Temperature

6.5.3.2.

6.5.3.2.1.

Quenching Media

6.5.3.2.1.1.

Water Quenching

6.5.3.2.1.2.

6.5.3.2.1.3.

Polymer Quenching

6.5.3.2.1.4.

6.5.3.2.2.

Cooling Rate Effects

6.5.3.2.3.

Quench Severity

6.5.3.3.

6.5.3.3.1.

Factors Affecting Hardenability

6.5.3.3.2.

Jominy End-Quench Test

6.5.3.3.3.

Hardenability Bands

6.5.4.

6.5.4.1.

Tempering Temperature Effects

6.5.4.2.

Tempering Time Effects

6.5.4.3.

Tempered Martensite Structure

6.5.4.4.

Tempering Embrittlement

6.5.5.

Isothermal Heat Treatments

6.5.5.1.

6.5.5.2.

6.5.6.

Surface Hardening

6.5.6.1.

6.5.6.1.1.

Gas Carburizing

6.5.6.1.2.

Liquid Carburizing

6.5.6.1.3.

Pack Carburizing

6.5.6.2.

6.5.6.2.1.

6.5.6.2.2.

Liquid Nitriding

6.5.6.2.3.

6.5.6.3.

6.5.6.4.

Induction Hardening

6.5.6.4.1.

Equipment and Process

6.5.6.5.

Flame Hardening

6.5.6.6.

Laser Surface Hardening

6.5.7.

Heat Treatment of Non-Ferrous Alloys

6.5.7.1.

Aluminum Alloy Heat Treatment

6.5.7.1.1.

Solution Treatment

6.5.7.1.2.

6.5.7.2.

Copper Alloy Heat Treatment

6.5.7.3.

Titanium Alloy Heat Treatment

6.6.

Surface Engineering and Coatings

6.6.1.

Surface Modification Techniques

6.6.1.1.

Mechanical Surface Treatments

6.6.1.1.1.

6.6.1.1.2.

Surface Rolling

6.6.1.2.

Thermal Surface Treatments

6.6.1.2.1.

Flame Hardening

6.6.1.2.2.

Laser Surface Melting

6.6.1.3.

Chemical Surface Treatments

6.6.1.3.1.

Chemical Etching

6.6.1.3.2.

6.6.2.

Electrochemical Coatings

6.6.2.1.

6.6.2.1.1.

Plating Solutions

6.6.2.1.2.

Current Density Effects

6.6.2.1.3.

6.6.2.2.

Electroless Plating

6.6.2.2.1.

Autocatalytic Reactions

6.6.2.2.2.

Advantages and Applications

6.6.2.3.

6.6.2.3.1.

Aluminum Anodizing

6.6.2.3.2.

Process Parameters

6.6.3.

Thermal Spray Coatings

6.6.3.1.

6.6.3.1.1.

Equipment and Materials

6.6.3.2.

6.6.3.3.

Plasma Spraying

6.6.3.3.1.

Atmospheric Plasma Spraying

6.6.3.3.2.

Vacuum Plasma Spraying

6.6.3.4.

High-Velocity Oxy-Fuel Spraying

6.6.4.

Vapor Deposition Processes

6.6.4.1.

Physical Vapor Deposition

6.6.4.1.1.

6.6.4.1.2.

6.6.4.1.3.

6.6.4.2.

Chemical Vapor Deposition

6.6.4.2.1.

6.6.4.2.2.

Plasma-Enhanced CVD

6.6.4.2.3.

Metal-Organic CVD

6.6.5.

Diffusion Coatings

6.6.5.1.

6.6.5.2.

6.6.5.3.

6.6.6.

Organic Coatings

6.6.6.1.

6.6.6.2.

Powder Coatings

6.6.7.

Applications of Surface Coatings

6.6.7.1.

Corrosion Protection

6.6.7.2.

Wear Resistance

6.6.7.3.

Thermal Barrier Coatings

6.6.7.4.

Decorative Coatings

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