Materials Characterization Techniques

  1. Microscopy Techniques
    1. Optical Microscopy
      1. Principles of Light Optics
        1. Wave Nature of Light
          1. Reflection and Refraction
            1. Resolution Limits
              1. Contrast Mechanisms
              2. Instrumentation Components
                1. Light Sources
                  1. Halogen Lamps
                    1. LED Illumination
                      1. Laser Sources
                        1. Arc Lamps
                        2. Optical Components
                          1. Objectives and Numerical Aperture
                            1. Eyepieces and Magnification
                              1. Filters and Polarizers
                                1. Beam Splitters and Mirrors
                                2. Detection Systems
                                  1. Visual Observation
                                    1. Digital Cameras
                                      1. Photomultiplier Tubes
                                    2. Imaging Modes and Techniques
                                      1. Bright-Field Microscopy
                                        1. Principles and Applications
                                          1. Contrast Enhancement Methods
                                          2. Dark-Field Microscopy
                                            1. Principles and Setup
                                              1. Applications for Defect Detection
                                              2. Polarized Light Microscopy
                                                1. Principles of Polarization
                                                  1. Birefringence Analysis
                                                    1. Stress Analysis
                                                    2. Differential Interference Contrast
                                                      1. Principles and Advantages
                                                        1. Quantitative Phase Measurements
                                                        2. Phase Contrast Microscopy
                                                          1. Phase-to-Amplitude Conversion
                                                            1. Applications in Transparent Samples
                                                            2. Fluorescence Microscopy
                                                              1. Principles of Fluorescence
                                                                1. Fluorophores and Labeling
                                                                  1. Filter Sets and Detection
                                                                  2. Confocal Microscopy
                                                                    1. Optical Sectioning Principles
                                                                      1. Point Scanning Systems
                                                                        1. 3D Imaging Capabilities
                                                                          1. Laser Scanning Confocal Microscopy
                                                                        2. Sample Preparation for Optical Microscopy
                                                                          1. Sectioning Techniques
                                                                            1. Mechanical Sectioning
                                                                              1. Microtomy
                                                                                1. Cryosectioning
                                                                                2. Mounting and Embedding
                                                                                  1. Mounting Media
                                                                                    1. Embedding Procedures
                                                                                      1. Orientation Control
                                                                                      2. Surface Preparation
                                                                                        1. Grinding and Polishing
                                                                                          1. Chemical Polishing
                                                                                            1. Electropolishing
                                                                                            2. Etching and Staining
                                                                                              1. Chemical Etching
                                                                                                1. Electrolytic Etching
                                                                                                  1. Staining Procedures
                                                                                                    1. Contrast Enhancement
                                                                                                2. Electron Microscopy
                                                                                                  1. Fundamentals of Electron-Matter Interactions
                                                                                                    1. Electron Scattering Mechanisms
                                                                                                      1. Elastic Scattering
                                                                                                        1. Inelastic Scattering
                                                                                                          1. Multiple Scattering
                                                                                                          2. Signal Generation
                                                                                                            1. Secondary Electrons
                                                                                                              1. Backscattered Electrons
                                                                                                                1. Transmitted Electrons
                                                                                                                  1. Auger Electrons
                                                                                                                    1. Characteristic X-rays
                                                                                                                      1. Cathodoluminescence
                                                                                                                      2. Interaction Volume
                                                                                                                        1. Factors Affecting Interaction Volume
                                                                                                                          1. Monte Carlo Simulations
                                                                                                                            1. Depth and Lateral Resolution
                                                                                                                          2. Scanning Electron Microscopy
                                                                                                                            1. Operating Principles
                                                                                                                              1. Electron Beam Formation
                                                                                                                                1. Beam-Sample Interaction
                                                                                                                                  1. Raster Scanning
                                                                                                                                    1. Image Formation
                                                                                                                                    2. Instrumentation
                                                                                                                                      1. Electron Sources
                                                                                                                                        1. Thermionic Emission Sources
                                                                                                                                          1. Field Emission Sources
                                                                                                                                            1. Schottky Emission Sources
                                                                                                                                            2. Electron Optics
                                                                                                                                              1. Electromagnetic Lenses
                                                                                                                                                1. Apertures and Alignment
                                                                                                                                                  1. Scanning Coils
                                                                                                                                                    1. Stigmators
                                                                                                                                                    2. Vacuum Systems
                                                                                                                                                      1. High Vacuum Requirements
                                                                                                                                                        1. Pumping Systems
                                                                                                                                                          1. Vacuum Measurement
                                                                                                                                                          2. Detection Systems
                                                                                                                                                            1. Everhart-Thornley Detector
                                                                                                                                                              1. Solid-State Detectors
                                                                                                                                                                1. In-lens Detectors
                                                                                                                                                                  1. Backscattered Electron Detectors
                                                                                                                                                                2. Imaging Modes
                                                                                                                                                                  1. Secondary Electron Imaging
                                                                                                                                                                    1. Topographical Contrast
                                                                                                                                                                      1. Surface Sensitivity
                                                                                                                                                                      2. Backscattered Electron Imaging
                                                                                                                                                                        1. Compositional Contrast
                                                                                                                                                                          1. Atomic Number Contrast
                                                                                                                                                                          2. Low Voltage Imaging
                                                                                                                                                                            1. Reduced Beam Damage
                                                                                                                                                                              1. Enhanced Surface Detail
                                                                                                                                                                            2. Operating Conditions
                                                                                                                                                                              1. Accelerating Voltage Selection
                                                                                                                                                                                1. Working Distance Optimization
                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Aperture Selection
                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Beam Current Considerations
                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Environmental and Variable Pressure SEM
                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Principles and Advantages
                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Gas Interactions
                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Imaging Non-conductive Samples
                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Dynamic Experiments
                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Sample Preparation for SEM
                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Conductive Coating
                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Sputter Coating
                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Carbon Coating
                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Ion Beam Coating
                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Sample Mounting
                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Mechanical Mounting
                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Adhesive Mounting
                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Conductive Mounting
                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Cleaning and Decontamination
                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Dehydration for Biological Samples
                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Critical Point Drying
                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Transmission Electron Microscopy
                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Operating Principles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Electron Transmission
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Image Formation Mechanisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Contrast Mechanisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Mass-Thickness Contrast
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Diffraction Contrast
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Phase Contrast
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Instrumentation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Electron Sources
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Thermionic Sources
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Field Emission Sources
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Electron Optics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Condenser System
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Objective Lens
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Intermediate and Projector Lenses
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Specimen Stage
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Goniometer Stages
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Heating and Cooling Stages
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Straining Stages
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Detection and Recording
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Fluorescent Screens
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. CCD Cameras
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. CMOS Cameras
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Image Plates
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Imaging Modes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Bright-Field Imaging
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Contrast Mechanisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Resolution Considerations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Dark-Field Imaging
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Diffraction Contrast
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Defect Imaging
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. High-Resolution TEM
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Lattice Imaging
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Structure Imaging
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Aberration Correction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Scanning TEM
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Probe Formation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Annular Dark Field Imaging
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. High Angle Annular Dark Field
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Bright Field STEM
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Electron Diffraction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Selected Area Electron Diffraction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Diffraction Pattern Formation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Crystal Structure Analysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Orientation Determination
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Convergent Beam Electron Diffraction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Higher Order Laue Zone Lines
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Point Group Determination
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Thickness Measurements
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Microdiffraction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Nanoprobe Diffraction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Local Structure Analysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Sample Preparation for TEM
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Mechanical Thinning
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Grinding and Polishing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Dimpling
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Ion Beam Thinning
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Argon Ion Milling
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Precision Ion Polishing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Electropolishing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Jet Polishing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Window Method
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Focused Ion Beam Preparation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Lift-out Technique
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Cross-sectional Specimens
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Site-specific Preparation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Ultramicrotomy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Sectioning Procedures
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Embedding and Staining
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Replica Techniques
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Extraction Replicas
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Surface Replicas
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Scanning Probe Microscopy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. General Principles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Probe-Sample Interactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Feedback Control Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Scanning Mechanisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Resolution Limits
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Scanning Tunneling Microscopy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Quantum Tunneling Principles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Tunneling Current
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Barrier Height Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Distance Dependence
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Instrumentation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Tip Preparation and Characterization
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Piezoelectric Scanners
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Vibration Isolation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Electronics and Control
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Operating Modes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Constant Current Mode
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Constant Height Mode
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Spectroscopy Mode
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Applications
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Atomic Resolution Imaging
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Surface Reconstruction Studies
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Electronic Structure Mapping
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Manipulation of Individual Atoms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Atomic Force Microscopy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Force Interaction Principles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Van der Waals Forces
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Electrostatic Forces
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Capillary Forces
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Chemical Forces
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Instrumentation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Cantilever Design and Selection
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Tip Geometry and Materials
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Optical Detection System
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Piezoelectric Positioning
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Environmental Control
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Operating Modes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Contact Mode
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Constant Force Operation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Lateral Force Microscopy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Tapping Mode
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Intermittent Contact
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Phase Imaging
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Amplitude and Phase Control
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Non-Contact Mode
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Frequency Modulation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Amplitude Modulation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Advanced Modes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Force Modulation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Magnetic Force Microscopy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Electrostatic Force Microscopy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Conductive AFM
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Data Analysis and Interpretation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Topographical Analysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Roughness Measurements
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Force Spectroscopy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Mechanical Property Mapping
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Other Scanning Probe Techniques
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Magnetic Force Microscopy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Magnetic Tip Interactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Domain Imaging
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Electrostatic Force Microscopy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Surface Potential Mapping
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Charge Distribution
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Scanning Thermal Microscopy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Thermal Conductivity Mapping
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Temperature Measurements

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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          3. Diffraction Techniques