Indo-European Languages

  1. Indo-European Language Branches
    1. Classification Principles
      1. Satem vs. Centum Division
        1. Phonological Basis
          1. Geographic Distribution
            1. Classification Significance
              1. Examples and Evidence
              2. Shared Innovations
                1. Subgrouping Criteria
                  1. Phylogenetic Relationships
                  2. Anatolian Branch
                    1. Branch Characteristics
                      1. Archaic Features
                        1. Laryngeal Preservation
                          1. Morphological Simplifications
                            1. Syntactic Innovations
                            2. Major Languages
                              1. Hittite
                                1. Cuneiform Writing System
                                  1. Text Corpus
                                    1. Historical Context
                                      1. Linguistic Features
                                      2. Luwian
                                        1. Hieroglyphic Luwian
                                          1. Cuneiform Luwian
                                            1. Geographic Distribution
                                            2. Palaic
                                              1. Limited Attestation
                                                1. Ritual Texts
                                                2. Lycian
                                                  1. Lycian A and B
                                                    1. Alphabetic Script
                                                    2. Lydian
                                                      1. Alphabetic Inscriptions
                                                        1. Historical Context
                                                      2. Historical Development
                                                        1. Chronological Stages
                                                          1. External Influences
                                                            1. Extinction Processes
                                                          2. Hellenic Branch
                                                            1. Branch Development
                                                              1. Proto-Hellenic Reconstruction
                                                                1. Geographic Spread
                                                                  1. Dialectal Differentiation
                                                                  2. Historical Stages
                                                                    1. Mycenaean Greek
                                                                      1. Linear B Script
                                                                        1. Palace Archives
                                                                          1. Linguistic Features
                                                                          2. Archaic Greek Dialects
                                                                            1. Ionic Dialect
                                                                              1. Aeolic Dialect
                                                                                1. Doric Dialect
                                                                                  1. Arcadocypriot Dialect
                                                                                  2. Classical Greek
                                                                                    1. Attic Standard
                                                                                      1. Literary Language
                                                                                        1. Philosophical Vocabulary
                                                                                        2. Koine Greek
                                                                                          1. Hellenistic Spread
                                                                                            1. New Testament Greek
                                                                                              1. Administrative Language
                                                                                              2. Byzantine Greek
                                                                                                1. Medieval Development
                                                                                                  1. Literary Traditions
                                                                                                  2. Modern Greek
                                                                                                    1. Demotic vs. Katharevousa
                                                                                                      1. Contemporary Standard
                                                                                                        1. Dialectal Variation
                                                                                                      2. Writing Systems
                                                                                                        1. Linear B Syllabary
                                                                                                          1. Greek Alphabet Development
                                                                                                            1. Orthographic Evolution
                                                                                                          2. Indo-Iranian Branch
                                                                                                            1. Branch Characteristics
                                                                                                              1. Shared Innovations
                                                                                                                1. Satem Features
                                                                                                                  1. Cultural Connections
                                                                                                                  2. Indo-Aryan Sub-branch
                                                                                                                    1. Vedic Sanskrit
                                                                                                                      1. Rigvedic Language
                                                                                                                        1. Vedic Literature
                                                                                                                          1. Linguistic Archaisms
                                                                                                                          2. Classical Sanskrit
                                                                                                                            1. Paninian Grammar
                                                                                                                              1. Literary Traditions
                                                                                                                                1. Standardization
                                                                                                                                2. Middle Indo-Aryan
                                                                                                                                  1. Prakrit Languages
                                                                                                                                    1. Pali Language
                                                                                                                                      1. Inscriptional Evidence
                                                                                                                                      2. Modern Indo-Aryan
                                                                                                                                        1. Hindi-Urdu Complex
                                                                                                                                          1. Bengali Language
                                                                                                                                            1. Punjabi Language
                                                                                                                                              1. Marathi Language
                                                                                                                                                1. Gujarati Language
                                                                                                                                                  1. Other Regional Languages
                                                                                                                                                2. Iranian Sub-branch
                                                                                                                                                  1. Old Iranian
                                                                                                                                                    1. Avestan Language
                                                                                                                                                      1. Old Persian
                                                                                                                                                        1. Cuneiform Inscriptions
                                                                                                                                                        2. Middle Iranian
                                                                                                                                                          1. Middle Persian (Pahlavi)
                                                                                                                                                            1. Parthian Language
                                                                                                                                                              1. Sogdian Language
                                                                                                                                                                1. Bactrian Language
                                                                                                                                                                2. Modern Iranian
                                                                                                                                                                  1. Persian (Farsi, Dari, Tajik)
                                                                                                                                                                    1. Pashto Language
                                                                                                                                                                      1. Kurdish Languages
                                                                                                                                                                        1. Balochi Language
                                                                                                                                                                          1. Ossetic Language
                                                                                                                                                                        2. Nuristani Sub-branch
                                                                                                                                                                          1. Geographic Distribution
                                                                                                                                                                            1. Language Varieties
                                                                                                                                                                              1. Distinctive Features
                                                                                                                                                                                1. Classification Debates
                                                                                                                                                                              2. Italic Branch
                                                                                                                                                                                1. Branch Development
                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Proto-Italic Reconstruction
                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Italian Peninsula Settlement
                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Dialectal Diversity
                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Ancient Italic Languages
                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Latino-Faliscan Group
                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Latin Language Development
                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Faliscan Language
                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Sabellic Languages
                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Oscan Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Umbrian Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Minor Sabellic Languages
                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Latin Language Evolution
                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Old Latin Period
                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Classical Latin
                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Vulgar Latin Development
                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Regional Variation
                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Romance Language Development
                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Western Romance
                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. French Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Spanish Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Portuguese Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Catalan Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Galician Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Italo-Western Romance
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Italian Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Regional Italian Languages
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Corsican Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Eastern Romance
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Romanian Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Aromanian Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Other Vlach Languages
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Sardinian Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Rhaeto-Romance Languages
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Writing Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Latin Alphabet Development
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Orthographic Traditions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Script Variations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Celtic Branch
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Branch Characteristics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Shared Celtic Innovations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Cultural Features
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Geographic Spread
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Continental Celtic
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Gaulish Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Inscriptional Evidence
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Geographic Distribution
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Celtiberian Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Iberian Peninsula
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Mixed Writing Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Lepontic Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Northern Italy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Inscriptional Corpus
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Insular Celtic
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Goidelic Languages
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Old Irish
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Middle Irish
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Modern Irish
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Scottish Gaelic
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Manx Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Brythonic Languages
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Welsh Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Cornish Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Breton Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Pictish Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Celtic Writing Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Ogham Script
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Latin Alphabet Adaptation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Manuscript Traditions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Historical Development
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Celtic Expansion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Roman Impact
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Medieval Survival
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Modern Revival Efforts
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Germanic Branch
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Branch Characteristics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Germanic Sound Shifts
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Morphological Innovations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Lexical Developments
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Proto-Germanic Features
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Grimm's Law Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Verner's Law
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Fixed Stress Accent
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Weak vs. Strong Verbs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. East Germanic
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Gothic Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Wulfila's Bible Translation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Linguistic Features
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Historical Context
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Vandalic Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Burgundian Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. North Germanic
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Old Norse Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Runic Inscriptions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Saga Literature
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Modern Scandinavian Languages
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Danish Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Swedish Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Norwegian Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Icelandic Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Faroese Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. West Germanic
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. High German Branch
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Old High German
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Middle High German
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Modern German
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Yiddish Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Low German Branch
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Old Saxon
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Middle Low German
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Modern Low German
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Anglo-Frisian Branch
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Old English
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Middle English
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Modern English
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Frisian Languages
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Dutch-Flemish Branch
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Old Dutch
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Middle Dutch
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Modern Dutch
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Afrikaans Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Runic Writing System
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Elder Futhark
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Younger Futhark
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Anglo-Saxon Runes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Armenian Branch
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Branch Characteristics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Unique Innovations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Substrate Influences
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Phonological Developments
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Historical Stages
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Proto-Armenian
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Classical Armenian (Grabar)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Literary Tradition
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Religious Texts
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Grammatical Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Middle Armenian
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Dialectal Variation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. External Influences
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Modern Armenian
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Eastern Armenian
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Western Armenian
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Dialectal Differences
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Writing System
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Armenian Alphabet
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Orthographic Traditions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Literary Development
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Tocharian Branch
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Discovery and Decipherment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Tarim Basin Manuscripts
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Archaeological Context
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Decipherment Process
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Language Varieties
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Tocharian A (Arśi-kushan)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Tocharian B (Kushan)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Dialectal Differences
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Linguistic Features
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Phonological Innovations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Morphological Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Syntactic Patterns
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Lexical Characteristics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Historical Context
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Silk Road Culture
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Buddhist Texts
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Extinction Timeline
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Balto-Slavic Branch
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Branch Unity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Shared Innovations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Proto-Balto-Slavic
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Subgrouping Evidence
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Baltic Languages
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Old Prussian
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Historical Documentation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Extinction Process
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Lithuanian Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Archaic Features
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Modern Development
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Latvian Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Historical Development
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Modern Standard
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Slavic Languages
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Proto-Slavic Reconstruction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Old Church Slavonic
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Cyrillic and Glagolitic Scripts
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Religious Literature
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. East Slavic Languages
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Russian Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Ukrainian Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Belarusian Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. West Slavic Languages
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Polish Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Czech Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Slovak Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Sorbian Languages
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. South Slavic Languages
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Serbo-Croatian Complex
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Bulgarian Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Macedonian Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Slovene Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Writing Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Cyrillic Alphabet
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Latin Alphabet Usage
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Glagolitic Script
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Albanian Branch
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Branch Characteristics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Unique Developments
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Substrate Influences
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Phonological Changes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Historical Development
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Proto-Albanian
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Medieval Albanian
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Modern Albanian
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Dialectal Variation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Gheg Dialect
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Tosk Dialect
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Standardization Process
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Writing System
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Latin Alphabet Adaptation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Orthographic Development
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Fragmentary Languages
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Phrygian Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Inscriptional Evidence
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Linguistic Features
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Historical Context
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Thracian Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Limited Attestation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Onomastic Evidence
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Dacian Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Geographic Distribution
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Substrate Influence
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Illyrian Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Balkan Peninsula
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Onomastic Data
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Messapic Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Southern Italy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Inscriptional Corpus
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Venetic Language
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Northern Italy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Alphabetic Inscriptions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Classification Challenges
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Limited Data
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Methodological Issues
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Competing Hypotheses

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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  4. Indo-European Homeland Question

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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  6. Reconstructed Indo-European Culture