Indo-European Languages

5.

Indo-European Language Branches

5.1.

Classification Principles

5.1.1.

Satem vs. Centum Division

5.1.1.1.

Phonological Basis

5.1.1.2.

Geographic Distribution

5.1.1.3.

Classification Significance

5.1.1.4.

Examples and Evidence

5.1.2.

Shared Innovations

5.1.3.

Subgrouping Criteria

5.1.4.

Phylogenetic Relationships

5.2.

Anatolian Branch

5.2.1.

Branch Characteristics

5.2.1.1.

Archaic Features

5.2.1.2.

Laryngeal Preservation

5.2.1.3.

Morphological Simplifications

5.2.1.4.

Syntactic Innovations

5.2.2.

Major Languages

5.2.2.1.

5.2.2.1.1.

Cuneiform Writing System

5.2.2.1.2.

5.2.2.1.3.

Historical Context

5.2.2.1.4.

Linguistic Features

5.2.2.2.

5.2.2.2.1.

Hieroglyphic Luwian

5.2.2.2.2.

Cuneiform Luwian

5.2.2.2.3.

Geographic Distribution

5.2.2.3.

5.2.2.3.1.

Limited Attestation

5.2.2.3.2.

5.2.2.4.

5.2.2.4.1.

5.2.2.4.2.

Alphabetic Script

5.2.2.5.

5.2.2.5.1.

Alphabetic Inscriptions

5.2.2.5.2.

Historical Context

5.2.3.

Historical Development

5.2.3.1.

Chronological Stages

5.2.3.2.

External Influences

5.2.3.3.

Extinction Processes

5.3.

Hellenic Branch

5.3.1.

Branch Development

5.3.1.1.

Proto-Hellenic Reconstruction

5.3.1.2.

Geographic Spread

5.3.1.3.

Dialectal Differentiation

5.3.2.

Historical Stages

5.3.2.1.

Mycenaean Greek

5.3.2.1.1.

Linear B Script

5.3.2.1.2.

Palace Archives

5.3.2.1.3.

Linguistic Features

5.3.2.2.

Archaic Greek Dialects

5.3.2.2.1.

5.3.2.2.2.

5.3.2.2.3.

5.3.2.2.4.

Arcadocypriot Dialect

5.3.2.3.

Classical Greek

5.3.2.3.1.

5.3.2.3.2.

Literary Language

5.3.2.3.3.

Philosophical Vocabulary

5.3.2.4.

5.3.2.4.1.

Hellenistic Spread

5.3.2.4.2.

New Testament Greek

5.3.2.4.3.

Administrative Language

5.3.2.5.

Byzantine Greek

5.3.2.5.1.

Medieval Development

5.3.2.5.2.

Literary Traditions

5.3.2.6.

5.3.2.6.1.

Demotic vs. Katharevousa

5.3.2.6.2.

Contemporary Standard

5.3.2.6.3.

Dialectal Variation

5.3.3.

Writing Systems

5.3.3.1.

Linear B Syllabary

5.3.3.2.

Greek Alphabet Development

5.3.3.3.

Orthographic Evolution

5.4.

Indo-Iranian Branch

5.4.1.

Branch Characteristics

5.4.1.1.

Shared Innovations

5.4.1.2.

5.4.1.3.

Cultural Connections

5.4.2.

Indo-Aryan Sub-branch

5.4.2.1.

5.4.2.1.1.

Rigvedic Language

5.4.2.1.2.

Vedic Literature

5.4.2.1.3.

Linguistic Archaisms

5.4.2.2.

Classical Sanskrit

5.4.2.2.1.

Paninian Grammar

5.4.2.2.2.

Literary Traditions

5.4.2.2.3.

Standardization

5.4.2.3.

Middle Indo-Aryan

5.4.2.3.1.

Prakrit Languages

5.4.2.3.2.

5.4.2.3.3.

Inscriptional Evidence

5.4.2.4.

Modern Indo-Aryan

5.4.2.4.1.

Hindi-Urdu Complex

5.4.2.4.2.

Bengali Language

5.4.2.4.3.

Punjabi Language

5.4.2.4.4.

Marathi Language

5.4.2.4.5.

Gujarati Language

5.4.2.4.6.

Other Regional Languages

5.4.3.

Iranian Sub-branch

5.4.3.1.

5.4.3.1.1.

Avestan Language

5.4.3.1.2.

5.4.3.1.3.

Cuneiform Inscriptions

5.4.3.2.

5.4.3.2.1.

Middle Persian (Pahlavi)

5.4.3.2.2.

Parthian Language

5.4.3.2.3.

Sogdian Language

5.4.3.2.4.

Bactrian Language

5.4.3.3.

5.4.3.3.1.

Persian (Farsi, Dari, Tajik)

5.4.3.3.2.

Pashto Language

5.4.3.3.3.

Kurdish Languages

5.4.3.3.4.

Balochi Language

5.4.3.3.5.

Ossetic Language

5.4.4.

Nuristani Sub-branch

5.4.4.1.

Geographic Distribution

5.4.4.2.

Language Varieties

5.4.4.3.

Distinctive Features

5.4.4.4.

Classification Debates

5.5.

5.5.1.

Branch Development

5.5.1.1.

Proto-Italic Reconstruction

5.5.1.2.

Italian Peninsula Settlement

5.5.1.3.

Dialectal Diversity

5.5.2.

Ancient Italic Languages

5.5.2.1.

Latino-Faliscan Group

5.5.2.1.1.

Latin Language Development

5.5.2.1.2.

Faliscan Language

5.5.2.2.

Sabellic Languages

5.5.2.2.1.

5.5.2.2.2.

Umbrian Language

5.5.2.2.3.

Minor Sabellic Languages

5.5.3.

Latin Language Evolution

5.5.3.1.

Old Latin Period

5.5.3.2.

Classical Latin

5.5.3.3.

Vulgar Latin Development

5.5.3.4.

Regional Variation

5.5.4.

Romance Language Development

5.5.4.1.

Western Romance

5.5.4.1.1.

French Language

5.5.4.1.2.

Spanish Language

5.5.4.1.3.

Portuguese Language

5.5.4.1.4.

Catalan Language

5.5.4.1.5.

Galician Language

5.5.4.2.

Italo-Western Romance

5.5.4.2.1.

Italian Language

5.5.4.2.2.

Regional Italian Languages

5.5.4.2.3.

Corsican Language

5.5.4.3.

Eastern Romance

5.5.4.3.1.

Romanian Language

5.5.4.3.2.

Aromanian Language

5.5.4.3.3.

Other Vlach Languages

5.5.4.4.

Sardinian Language

5.5.4.5.

Rhaeto-Romance Languages

5.5.5.

Writing Systems

5.5.5.1.

Latin Alphabet Development

5.5.5.2.

Orthographic Traditions

5.5.5.3.

Script Variations

5.6.

5.6.1.

Branch Characteristics

5.6.1.1.

Shared Celtic Innovations

5.6.1.2.

Cultural Features

5.6.1.3.

Geographic Spread

5.6.2.

Continental Celtic

5.6.2.1.

Gaulish Language

5.6.2.1.1.

Inscriptional Evidence

5.6.2.1.2.

Geographic Distribution

5.6.2.2.

Celtiberian Language

5.6.2.2.1.

Iberian Peninsula

5.6.2.2.2.

Mixed Writing Systems

5.6.2.3.

Lepontic Language

5.6.2.3.1.

5.6.2.3.2.

Inscriptional Corpus

5.6.3.

5.6.3.1.

Goidelic Languages

5.6.3.1.1.

5.6.3.1.2.

5.6.3.1.3.

5.6.3.1.4.

Scottish Gaelic

5.6.3.1.5.

5.6.3.2.

Brythonic Languages

5.6.3.2.1.

5.6.3.2.2.

Cornish Language

5.6.3.2.3.

Breton Language

5.6.3.2.4.

Pictish Language

5.6.4.

Celtic Writing Systems

5.6.4.1.

5.6.4.2.

Latin Alphabet Adaptation

5.6.4.3.

Manuscript Traditions

5.6.5.

Historical Development

5.6.5.1.

Celtic Expansion

5.6.5.2.

5.6.5.3.

Medieval Survival

5.6.5.4.

Modern Revival Efforts

5.7.

Germanic Branch

5.7.1.

Branch Characteristics

5.7.1.1.

Germanic Sound Shifts

5.7.1.2.

Morphological Innovations

5.7.1.3.

Lexical Developments

5.7.2.

Proto-Germanic Features

5.7.2.1.

Grimm's Law Effects

5.7.2.2.

5.7.2.3.

Fixed Stress Accent

5.7.2.4.

Weak vs. Strong Verbs

5.7.3.

5.7.3.1.

Gothic Language

5.7.3.1.1.

Wulfila's Bible Translation

5.7.3.1.2.

Linguistic Features

5.7.3.1.3.

Historical Context

5.7.3.2.

Vandalic Language

5.7.3.3.

Burgundian Language

5.7.4.

5.7.4.1.

Old Norse Language

5.7.4.1.1.

Runic Inscriptions

5.7.4.1.2.

Saga Literature

5.7.4.2.

Modern Scandinavian Languages

5.7.4.2.1.

Danish Language

5.7.4.2.2.

Swedish Language

5.7.4.2.3.

Norwegian Language

5.7.4.2.4.

Icelandic Language

5.7.4.2.5.

Faroese Language

5.7.5.

5.7.5.1.

High German Branch

5.7.5.1.1.

Old High German

5.7.5.1.2.

Middle High German

5.7.5.1.3.

5.7.5.1.4.

Yiddish Language

5.7.5.2.

Low German Branch

5.7.5.2.1.

5.7.5.2.2.

Middle Low German

5.7.5.2.3.

Modern Low German

5.7.5.3.

Anglo-Frisian Branch

5.7.5.3.1.

5.7.5.3.2.

5.7.5.3.3.

5.7.5.3.4.

Frisian Languages

5.7.5.4.

Dutch-Flemish Branch

5.7.5.4.1.

5.7.5.4.2.

5.7.5.4.3.

5.7.5.4.4.

Afrikaans Language

5.7.6.

Runic Writing System

5.7.6.1.

5.7.6.2.

Younger Futhark

5.7.6.3.

Anglo-Saxon Runes

5.8.

Armenian Branch

5.8.1.

Branch Characteristics

5.8.1.1.

Unique Innovations

5.8.1.2.

Substrate Influences

5.8.1.3.

Phonological Developments

5.8.2.

Historical Stages

5.8.2.1.

5.8.2.2.

Classical Armenian (Grabar)

5.8.2.2.1.

Literary Tradition

5.8.2.2.2.

Religious Texts

5.8.2.2.3.

Grammatical Structure

5.8.2.3.

Middle Armenian

5.8.2.3.1.

Dialectal Variation

5.8.2.3.2.

External Influences

5.8.2.4.

Modern Armenian

5.8.2.4.1.

Eastern Armenian

5.8.2.4.2.

Western Armenian

5.8.2.4.3.

Dialectal Differences

5.8.3.

5.8.3.1.

Armenian Alphabet

5.8.3.2.

Orthographic Traditions

5.8.3.3.

Literary Development

5.9.

Tocharian Branch

5.9.1.

Discovery and Decipherment

5.9.1.1.

Tarim Basin Manuscripts

5.9.1.2.

Archaeological Context

5.9.1.3.

Decipherment Process

5.9.2.

Language Varieties

5.9.2.1.

Tocharian A (Arśi-kushan)

5.9.2.2.

Tocharian B (Kushan)

5.9.2.3.

Dialectal Differences

5.9.3.

Linguistic Features

5.9.3.1.

Phonological Innovations

5.9.3.2.

Morphological Structure

5.9.3.3.

Syntactic Patterns

5.9.3.4.

Lexical Characteristics

5.9.4.

Historical Context

5.9.4.1.

Silk Road Culture

5.9.4.2.

5.9.4.3.

Extinction Timeline

5.10.

Balto-Slavic Branch

5.10.1.

5.10.1.1.

Shared Innovations

5.10.1.2.

Proto-Balto-Slavic

5.10.1.3.

Subgrouping Evidence

5.10.2.

Baltic Languages

5.10.2.1.

5.10.2.1.1.

Historical Documentation

5.10.2.1.2.

Extinction Process

5.10.2.2.

Lithuanian Language

5.10.2.2.1.

Archaic Features

5.10.2.2.2.

Modern Development

5.10.2.3.

Latvian Language

5.10.2.3.1.

Historical Development

5.10.2.3.2.

Modern Standard

5.10.3.

Slavic Languages

5.10.3.1.

Proto-Slavic Reconstruction

5.10.3.2.

Old Church Slavonic

5.10.3.2.1.

Cyrillic and Glagolitic Scripts

5.10.3.2.2.

Religious Literature

5.10.3.3.

East Slavic Languages

5.10.3.3.1.

Russian Language

5.10.3.3.2.

Ukrainian Language

5.10.3.3.3.

Belarusian Language

5.10.3.4.

West Slavic Languages

5.10.3.4.1.

Polish Language

5.10.3.4.2.

5.10.3.4.3.

Slovak Language

5.10.3.4.4.

Sorbian Languages

5.10.3.5.

South Slavic Languages

5.10.3.5.1.

Serbo-Croatian Complex

5.10.3.5.2.

Bulgarian Language

5.10.3.5.3.

Macedonian Language

5.10.3.5.4.

Slovene Language

5.10.4.

Writing Systems

5.10.4.1.

Cyrillic Alphabet

5.10.4.2.

Latin Alphabet Usage

5.10.4.3.

Glagolitic Script

5.11.

Albanian Branch

5.11.1.

Branch Characteristics

5.11.1.1.

Unique Developments

5.11.1.2.

Substrate Influences

5.11.1.3.

Phonological Changes

5.11.2.

Historical Development

5.11.2.1.

5.11.2.2.

Medieval Albanian

5.11.2.3.

Modern Albanian

5.11.3.

Dialectal Variation

5.11.3.1.

5.11.3.2.

5.11.3.3.

Standardization Process

5.11.4.

5.11.4.1.

Latin Alphabet Adaptation

5.11.4.2.

Orthographic Development

5.12.

Fragmentary Languages

5.12.1.

Phrygian Language

5.12.1.1.

Inscriptional Evidence

5.12.1.2.

Linguistic Features

5.12.1.3.

Historical Context

5.12.2.

Thracian Language

5.12.2.1.

Limited Attestation

5.12.2.2.

Onomastic Evidence

5.12.3.

Dacian Language

5.12.3.1.

Geographic Distribution

5.12.3.2.

Substrate Influence

5.12.4.

Illyrian Language

5.12.4.1.

Balkan Peninsula

5.12.4.2.

5.12.5.

Messapic Language

5.12.5.1.

5.12.5.2.

Inscriptional Corpus

5.12.6.

Venetic Language

5.12.6.1.

5.12.6.2.

Alphabetic Inscriptions

5.12.7.

Classification Challenges

5.12.7.1.

5.12.7.2.

Methodological Issues

5.12.7.3.

Competing Hypotheses

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