Indo-European Languages

2.

The Comparative Method

2.1.

Fundamental Principles

2.1.1.

Systematic Sound Correspondences

2.1.1.1.

Regularity Principle

2.1.1.2.

Phonetic Plausibility

2.1.1.3.

Cross-Linguistic Evidence

2.1.2.

Morphological Correspondences

2.1.2.1.

Inflectional Patterns

2.1.2.2.

Derivational Processes

2.1.2.3.

Grammatical Categories

2.1.3.

Lexical Correspondences

2.1.3.1.

Core Vocabulary

2.1.3.2.

Cultural Vocabulary

2.1.3.3.

Semantic Fields

2.2.

Cognate Identification

2.2.1.

Definition of Cognates

2.2.2.

Criteria for Cognacy

2.2.2.1.

Phonological Similarity

2.2.2.2.

Semantic Relationship

2.2.2.3.

Morphological Structure

2.2.3.

2.2.3.1.

Chance Resemblances

2.2.3.2.

2.2.3.3.

2.2.3.4.

2.3.

Reconstruction Methodology

2.3.1.

Principles of Reconstruction

2.3.1.1.

2.3.1.2.

Archaic Features

2.3.1.3.

Phonological Naturalness

2.3.2.

Phonological Reconstruction

2.3.2.1.

Sound System Recovery

2.3.2.2.

Phoneme Inventories

2.3.2.3.

Phonotactic Constraints

2.3.3.

Morphological Reconstruction

2.3.3.1.

Inflectional Systems

2.3.3.2.

Word Formation Patterns

2.3.3.3.

Paradigm Reconstruction

2.3.4.

Lexical Reconstruction

2.3.4.1.

Root Reconstruction

2.3.4.2.

Semantic Reconstruction

2.3.4.3.

Etymology Establishment

2.4.

Sound Laws and Regular Change

2.4.1.

Nature of Sound Laws

2.4.1.1.

Exceptionless Operation

2.4.1.2.

Conditioned vs. Unconditioned Change

2.4.1.3.

Relative Chronology

2.4.2.

Major Indo-European Sound Laws

2.4.2.1.

2.4.2.1.1.

Germanic Consonant Shift

2.4.2.1.2.

Three-Stage Process

2.4.2.1.3.

Examples and Evidence

2.4.2.2.

2.4.2.2.1.

Accent-Conditioned Change

2.4.2.2.2.

Complementary Distribution

2.4.2.2.3.

Historical Significance

2.4.2.3.

Grassmann's Law

2.4.2.3.1.

Dissimilation Process

2.4.2.3.2.

Greek and Sanskrit Evidence

2.4.2.4.

Bartholomae's Law

2.4.2.4.1.

Voiced Aspirate Clusters

2.4.2.4.2.

Indo-Iranian Evidence

2.4.2.5.

2.4.2.5.1.

Sibilant Development

2.4.2.5.2.

Satem Language Feature

2.4.3.

Analogical Change

2.4.3.1.

Paradigm Leveling

2.4.3.2.

Proportional Analogy

2.4.3.3.

Interaction with Sound Change

2.5.

Internal Reconstruction

2.5.1.

Methodological Principles

2.5.2.

Analysis of Morphophonemic Alternations

2.5.3.

Reconstruction from Single Languages

2.5.4.

Limitations and Applications

2.5.5.

Complementarity with Comparative Method

2.6.

Linguistic Paleontology

2.6.1.

Cultural Reconstruction from Vocabulary

2.6.2.

Reconstructed Semantic Fields

2.6.2.1.

Natural Environment

2.6.2.2.

Material Culture

2.6.2.3.

Social Organization

2.6.2.4.

Religious Concepts

2.6.3.

Methodological Limitations

2.6.4.

Archaeological Correlations

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3. Proto-Indo-European Language