Indo-European Languages

  1. Proto-Indo-European Language
    1. Reconstruction Overview
      1. Temporal and Geographic Framework
        1. Sources of Evidence
          1. Reconstruction Limitations
            1. Scholarly Consensus and Debates
            2. PIE Phonological System
              1. Consonant Inventory
                1. Stop System
                  1. Voiceless Stops
                    1. Voiced Stops
                      1. Voiced Aspirated Stops
                        1. Three-Way Contrast
                        2. Laryngeal Theory
                          1. Three Laryngeals
                            1. Phonetic Realization
                              1. Effects on Vowels
                                1. Morphological Functions
                                2. Resonant System
                                  1. Nasal Consonants
                                    1. Liquid Consonants
                                      1. Glide Consonants
                                        1. Syllabic Function
                                        2. Fricatives
                                          1. Sibilant *s
                                            1. Distribution and Variants
                                          2. Vowel System
                                            1. Basic Vowel Inventory
                                              1. Short Vowels
                                                1. Long Vowels
                                                  1. Vowel Quality
                                                  2. Diphthongs
                                                    1. Rising Diphthongs
                                                      1. Falling Diphthongs
                                                        1. Monophthongization Processes
                                                      2. Ablaut System
                                                        1. Vowel Gradation Patterns
                                                          1. Full Grade (e-grade)
                                                            1. O-Grade
                                                              1. Zero Grade
                                                                1. Lengthened Grades
                                                                2. Morphological Functions
                                                                  1. Verbal Inflection
                                                                    1. Nominal Derivation
                                                                      1. Word Formation
                                                                  2. PIE Morphological Structure
                                                                    1. Word Formation Principles
                                                                      1. Root Structure
                                                                        1. Canonical Root Shape
                                                                          1. Root Constraints
                                                                            1. Root Types
                                                                            2. Affixation Patterns
                                                                              1. Suffixation
                                                                                1. Prefixation
                                                                                  1. Infixation
                                                                                2. Nominal Morphology
                                                                                  1. Gender System
                                                                                    1. Masculine Gender
                                                                                      1. Feminine Gender
                                                                                        1. Neuter Gender
                                                                                          1. Animacy Distinctions
                                                                                          2. Number Categories
                                                                                            1. Singular
                                                                                              1. Dual
                                                                                                1. Plural
                                                                                                2. Case System
                                                                                                  1. Nominative Case
                                                                                                    1. Vocative Case
                                                                                                      1. Accusative Case
                                                                                                        1. Genitive Case
                                                                                                          1. Dative Case
                                                                                                            1. Ablative Case
                                                                                                              1. Locative Case
                                                                                                                1. Instrumental Case
                                                                                                                2. Declensional Classes
                                                                                                                  1. Thematic Declension
                                                                                                                    1. Athematic Declension
                                                                                                                      1. Consonant Stems
                                                                                                                        1. Vowel Stems
                                                                                                                      2. Verbal Morphology
                                                                                                                        1. Stem Formation
                                                                                                                          1. Present Stems
                                                                                                                            1. Aorist Stems
                                                                                                                              1. Perfect Stems
                                                                                                                              2. Tense-Aspect System
                                                                                                                                1. Present Tense
                                                                                                                                  1. Aorist Aspect
                                                                                                                                    1. Perfect Aspect
                                                                                                                                      1. Imperfect Formation
                                                                                                                                      2. Mood Categories
                                                                                                                                        1. Indicative Mood
                                                                                                                                          1. Subjunctive Mood
                                                                                                                                            1. Optative Mood
                                                                                                                                              1. Imperative Mood
                                                                                                                                              2. Voice Distinctions
                                                                                                                                                1. Active Voice
                                                                                                                                                  1. Middle Voice
                                                                                                                                                    1. Passive Constructions
                                                                                                                                                    2. Personal Inflection
                                                                                                                                                      1. Primary Endings
                                                                                                                                                        1. Secondary Endings
                                                                                                                                                          1. Person-Number Marking
                                                                                                                                                        2. Pronouns and Determiners
                                                                                                                                                          1. Personal Pronouns
                                                                                                                                                            1. Demonstrative Pronouns
                                                                                                                                                              1. Interrogative Pronouns
                                                                                                                                                                1. Relative Pronouns
                                                                                                                                                              2. PIE Syntactic Structure
                                                                                                                                                                1. Basic Word Order
                                                                                                                                                                  1. SOV Tendencies
                                                                                                                                                                    1. Constituent Order Variation
                                                                                                                                                                      1. Pragmatic Factors
                                                                                                                                                                      2. Clause Structure
                                                                                                                                                                        1. Simple Sentences
                                                                                                                                                                          1. Complex Sentences
                                                                                                                                                                            1. Coordination Patterns
                                                                                                                                                                              1. Subordination Strategies
                                                                                                                                                                              2. Special Syntactic Phenomena
                                                                                                                                                                                1. Wackernagel's Law
                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Particle Placement
                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Clitic Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Negation and Questions
                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Negative Constructions
                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Interrogative Formation
                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Focus and Topic Marking

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                                                                                                                                                                                      2. The Comparative Method

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                                                                                                                                                                                      4. Indo-European Homeland Question