Ichthyology

  1. Fish Anatomy and Morphology
    1. External Anatomy
      1. Body Shape and Form
        1. Basic Body Plans
          1. Fusiform
            1. Streamlined Design
              1. Swimming Efficiency
              2. Compressiform
                1. Lateral Compression
                  1. Maneuverability
                  2. Depressiform
                    1. Dorsoventral Flattening
                      1. Bottom Dwelling
                      2. Anguilliform
                        1. Elongated Body
                          1. Undulatory Swimming
                          2. Globiform
                            1. Spherical Shape
                              1. Defensive Adaptations
                            2. Morphometric Analysis
                              1. Standard Measurements
                                1. Proportional Relationships
                                  1. Statistical Methods
                                  2. Adaptations to Habitat
                                    1. Pelagic Adaptations
                                      1. Benthic Adaptations
                                        1. Reef Adaptations
                                      2. Fins and Their Functions
                                        1. Paired Fins
                                          1. Pectoral Fins
                                            1. Structure and Position
                                              1. High Position
                                                1. Mid Position
                                                  1. Low Position
                                                  2. Functional Roles
                                                    1. Maneuvering
                                                      1. Braking
                                                        1. Hovering
                                                        2. Specialized Adaptations
                                                          1. Wing-like Extensions
                                                            1. Sucker Modifications
                                                          2. Pelvic Fins
                                                            1. Structure and Position
                                                              1. Abdominal Position
                                                                1. Thoracic Position
                                                                  1. Jugular Position
                                                                  2. Functional Roles
                                                                    1. Stability
                                                                      1. Steering
                                                                        1. Support
                                                                        2. Specialized Adaptations
                                                                          1. Claspers in Males
                                                                            1. Sucker Discs
                                                                        3. Unpaired Fins
                                                                          1. Dorsal Fin
                                                                            1. Single Dorsal Fin
                                                                              1. Multiple Dorsal Fins
                                                                                1. Fin Ray Types
                                                                                  1. Soft Rays
                                                                                    1. Spiny Rays
                                                                                    2. Functions
                                                                                      1. Stability
                                                                                        1. Propulsion
                                                                                          1. Display
                                                                                        2. Caudal Fin
                                                                                          1. Types of Caudal Fins
                                                                                            1. Homocercal
                                                                                              1. Symmetrical Appearance
                                                                                                1. Internal Asymmetry
                                                                                                2. Heterocercal
                                                                                                  1. Shark-type Tail
                                                                                                    1. Lift Generation
                                                                                                    2. Diphycercal
                                                                                                      1. Primitive Condition
                                                                                                        1. Symmetrical Structure
                                                                                                      2. Caudal Fin Shapes
                                                                                                        1. Rounded
                                                                                                          1. Truncate
                                                                                                            1. Forked
                                                                                                              1. Lunate
                                                                                                              2. Propulsive Functions
                                                                                                                1. Thrust Generation
                                                                                                                  1. Steering
                                                                                                                2. Anal Fin
                                                                                                                  1. Structure and Position
                                                                                                                    1. Stabilizing Function
                                                                                                                      1. Sexual Dimorphism
                                                                                                                      2. Adipose Fin
                                                                                                                        1. Occurrence in Fish Groups
                                                                                                                          1. Sensory Functions
                                                                                                                            1. Hydrodynamic Role
                                                                                                                        2. The Integumentary System
                                                                                                                          1. Skin Structure
                                                                                                                            1. Epidermis
                                                                                                                              1. Cell Layers
                                                                                                                                1. Mucus Production
                                                                                                                                  1. Sensory Cells
                                                                                                                                  2. Dermis
                                                                                                                                    1. Collagen Fibers
                                                                                                                                      1. Blood Vessels
                                                                                                                                        1. Nerve Endings
                                                                                                                                        2. Hypodermis
                                                                                                                                          1. Fat Storage
                                                                                                                                            1. Insulation
                                                                                                                                          2. Mucus Layer
                                                                                                                                            1. Composition
                                                                                                                                              1. Proteins
                                                                                                                                                1. Carbohydrates
                                                                                                                                                  1. Antimicrobial Compounds
                                                                                                                                                  2. Functions
                                                                                                                                                    1. Drag Reduction
                                                                                                                                                      1. Disease Resistance
                                                                                                                                                        1. Ion Regulation
                                                                                                                                                        2. Renewal and Maintenance
                                                                                                                                                        3. Scales and Their Types
                                                                                                                                                          1. Placoid Scales
                                                                                                                                                            1. Structure
                                                                                                                                                              1. Distribution
                                                                                                                                                                1. Functions
                                                                                                                                                                2. Ganoid Scales
                                                                                                                                                                  1. Composition
                                                                                                                                                                    1. Primitive Fishes
                                                                                                                                                                    2. Cycloid Scales
                                                                                                                                                                      1. Smooth Edges
                                                                                                                                                                        1. Growth Rings
                                                                                                                                                                        2. Ctenoid Scales
                                                                                                                                                                          1. Comb-like Edges
                                                                                                                                                                            1. Advanced Teleosts
                                                                                                                                                                            2. Scale Development
                                                                                                                                                                              1. Formation Process
                                                                                                                                                                                1. Growth Patterns
                                                                                                                                                                                2. Scale Replacement
                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Regeneration
                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Healing Process
                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Specialized Integumentary Structures
                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Scutes
                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Bony Plates
                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Protective Function
                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Tubercles
                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Breeding Modifications
                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Photophores
                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Light Production
                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Bioluminescence
                                                                                                                                                                                          3. Coloration and Camouflage
                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Pigment Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Chromatophores
                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Melanophores
                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Erythrophores
                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Xanthophores
                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Pigment Distribution
                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Color Change Mechanisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Neural Control
                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Hormonal Control
                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Structural Colors
                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Iridophores
                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Reflective Platelets
                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Interference Colors
                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Leucophores
                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. White Reflection
                                                                                                                                                                                                              3. Camouflage Strategies
                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Countershading
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Dark Dorsum
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Light Ventrum
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Adaptive Significance
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Disruptive Coloration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Pattern Breaking
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Edge Disruption
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Background Matching
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Substrate Mimicry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Seasonal Changes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Conspicuous Coloration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Mimicry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Batesian Mimicry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Müllerian Mimicry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Aggressive Mimicry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Warning Coloration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Aposematism
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Toxicity Signals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Sexual Selection
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Breeding Colors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Mate Choice
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        3. Head Structures
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Mouth and Jaw Morphology
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Mouth Position
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Terminal
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Superior
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Inferior
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Subterminal
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Jaw Mechanics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Protrusion Mechanisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Bite Force
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Suction Feeding
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Feeding Specializations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Pharyngeal Jaws
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Gill Rakers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Teeth and Dental Structures
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Tooth Types
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Pointed Teeth
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Flat Teeth
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Fused Teeth
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Tooth Replacement
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Continuous Replacement
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Tooth Rows
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Pharyngeal Teeth
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Processing Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Species Identification
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Sensory Structures
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Barbels
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Tactile Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Chemical Sensing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Distribution Patterns
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Nostrils
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Anterior Nares
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Posterior Nares
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Water Flow
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Operculum
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Gill Protection
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Respiratory Movements
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Opercular Bones
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Eyes and Vision
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Eye Position
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Lateral Eyes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Dorsal Eyes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Tubular Eyes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Eye Adaptations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Deep-sea Modifications
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Surface Adaptations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Nocturnal Adaptations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    3. Internal Anatomy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Skeletal System
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Axial Skeleton
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Cranium
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Neurocranium
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Splanchnocranium
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Skull Bones
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Vertebral Column
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Vertebral Types
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Regional Specialization
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Vertebral Count
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Ribs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Pleural Ribs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Epipleural Ribs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Appendicular Skeleton
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Pectoral Girdle
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Cleithrum
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Scapula
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Coracoid
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Pelvic Girdle
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Basipterygium
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Pelvic Fin Rays
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Fin Ray Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Lepidotrichia
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Actinotrichia
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Bone Types and Development
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Cartilage Bone
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Dermal Bone
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Ossification Process
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Muscular System
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Axial Musculature
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Myomeres
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Segmental Arrangement
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. W-shaped Pattern
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Myosepta
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Connective Tissue
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Muscle Attachment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Red Muscle
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Aerobic Metabolism
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Sustained Swimming
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. White Muscle
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Anaerobic Metabolism
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Burst Swimming
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Appendicular Musculature
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Fin Muscles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Erector Muscles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Depressor Muscles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Jaw Muscles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Adductor Muscles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Levator Muscles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Specialized Muscle Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Electric Organs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Modified Muscle Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Electric Discharge
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Sonic Muscles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Sound Production
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Swim Bladder Interaction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          3. Digestive System
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Alimentary Canal
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Oral Cavity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Buccal Cavity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Tongue Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Pharynx
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Gill Raker Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Food Processing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Esophagus
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Transport Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Muscular Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Stomach
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Stomach Types
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Sac-like Stomach
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Y-shaped Stomach
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. No True Stomach
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Gastric Glands
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Acid Production
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Intestine
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Small Intestine
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Large Intestine
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Intestinal Length
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Absorption Surface
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Pyloric Caeca
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Digestive Enzyme Production
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Nutrient Absorption
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Accessory Organs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Liver
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Bile Production
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Metabolic Functions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Lipid Storage
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Pancreas
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Enzyme Production
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Hormone Secretion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Gall Bladder
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Bile Storage
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Bile Release
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          3. Respiratory System
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Gill Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Gill Arches
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Bony Support
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Muscle Attachment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Gill Filaments
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Primary Lamellae
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Blood Supply
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Secondary Lamellae
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Gas Exchange Surface
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Capillary Networks
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Gill Rakers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Filtering Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Food Capture
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Respiratory Mechanisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Water Flow Patterns
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Unidirectional Flow
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Opercular Pumping
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Countercurrent Exchange
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Oxygen Extraction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Efficiency Maximization
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Ventilation Control
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Neural Regulation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Chemical Sensors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Air-Breathing Adaptations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Accessory Respiratory Organs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Labyrinth Organ
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Air Bladder Modifications
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Skin Respiration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Behavioral Adaptations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Air Gulping
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Surface Breathing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                3. Circulatory System
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Heart Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Two-Chambered Heart
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Atrium
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Blood Collection
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Venous Return
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Ventricle
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Blood Pumping
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Arterial Output
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Heart Valves
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Atrioventricular Valve
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Semilunar Valves
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Cardiac Cycle
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Systole
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Diastole
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Blood Vessels
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Arterial System
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Ventral Aorta
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Afferent Branchial Arteries
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Dorsal Aorta
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Venous System
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Cardinal Veins
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Hepatic Portal System
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Renal Portal System
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Capillary Networks
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Tissue Perfusion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Exchange Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Blood Composition
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Plasma
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Water Content
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Dissolved Substances
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Blood Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Red Blood Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Hemoglobin Content
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Oxygen Transport
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Nucleated Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. White Blood Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Immune Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Cell Types
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Platelets
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Blood Clotting
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                3. Excretory System and Osmoregulation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Kidney Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Pronephros
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Embryonic Kidney
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Mesonephros
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Functional Kidney
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Nephron Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Glomerulus
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Tubule System
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Osmoregulatory Strategies
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Freshwater Fish
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Water Influx Problem
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Ion Conservation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Dilute Urine Production
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Marine Fish
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Water Loss Problem
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Salt Excretion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Concentrated Urine
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Euryhaline Fish
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Salinity Tolerance
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Regulatory Flexibility
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Ion Regulation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Gill Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Chloride Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Active Transport
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Ion Exchange
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Kidney Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Filtration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Reabsorption
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Secretion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Nervous System
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Central Nervous System
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Brain Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Forebrain
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Olfactory Bulbs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Cerebrum
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Diencephalon
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Midbrain
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Optic Tectum
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Tegmentum
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Hindbrain
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Cerebellum
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Medulla Oblongata
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Spinal Cord
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Gray Matter
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. White Matter
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Spinal Nerves
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Peripheral Nervous System
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Cranial Nerves
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Sensory Nerves
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Motor Nerves
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Mixed Nerves
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Spinal Nerves
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Dorsal Roots
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Ventral Roots
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Autonomic Nervous System
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Sympathetic Division
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Parasympathetic Division
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      3. Endocrine System
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Major Endocrine Glands
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Pituitary Gland
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Adenohypophysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Neurohypophysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Hormone Production
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Thyroid Gland
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Thyroid Hormones
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Metabolic Regulation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Adrenal Tissues
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Chromaffin Tissue
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Interrenal Tissue
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Stress Response
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Pancreatic Islets
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Insulin Production
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Glucose Regulation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Gonads
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Sex Hormones
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Reproductive Control
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Hormone Functions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Growth Regulation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Reproduction Control
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Stress Response
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Osmoregulation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Metabolism Control

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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    Go to top

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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    3. Fish Physiology and Sensory Biology