Evolutionary Biology

  1. Evidence for Evolution
    1. The Fossil Record
      1. Formation and Preservation of Fossils
        1. Conditions for Fossilization
          1. Types of Fossils
          2. Stratigraphy and Relative Dating
            1. Principle of Superposition
              1. Index Fossils
              2. Radiometric Dating
                1. Radioactive Decay Principles
                  1. Carbon Dating
                    1. Applications and Limitations
                    2. Potassium-Argon Dating
                      1. Uranium-Lead Dating
                        1. Other Dating Methods
                        2. Transitional Fossils
                          1. Fish to Tetrapod Transition
                            1. Reptile to Mammal Transition
                              1. Dinosaur to Bird Transition
                                1. Whale Evolution
                                2. Gaps in the Fossil Record
                                  1. Taphonomic Bias
                                    1. Sampling Bias
                                      1. Significance for Evolutionary Theory
                                        1. Punctuated Equilibrium
                                      2. Comparative Anatomy
                                        1. Homologous Structures
                                          1. Forelimb Structure in Vertebrates
                                            1. Developmental Basis of Homology
                                            2. Analogous Structures
                                              1. Convergent Evolution
                                                1. Examples in Nature
                                                  1. Wing Structure
                                                    1. Eye Evolution
                                                      1. Echolocation
                                                    2. Vestigial Structures
                                                      1. Human Examples
                                                        1. Appendix
                                                          1. Wisdom Teeth
                                                            1. Tailbone
                                                            2. Animal Examples
                                                              1. Whale Hip Bones
                                                                1. Snake Limb Buds
                                                              2. Atavisms
                                                                1. Reappearance of Ancestral Traits
                                                              3. Biogeography
                                                                1. Distribution of Species
                                                                  1. Endemism
                                                                    1. Disjunct Distributions
                                                                      1. Range Limits
                                                                      2. Island Biogeography
                                                                        1. Adaptive Radiation on Islands
                                                                          1. Darwin's Finches
                                                                            1. Hawaiian Honeycreepers
                                                                            2. Founder Effects
                                                                              1. Island Dwarfism and Gigantism
                                                                              2. Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics
                                                                                1. Historical Biogeography
                                                                                  1. Vicariance and Dispersal
                                                                                    1. Gondwana and Laurasia
                                                                                    2. Phylogeography
                                                                                      1. Genetic Structure and Geography
                                                                                    3. Comparative Embryology
                                                                                      1. Developmental Similarities Among Species
                                                                                        1. Conservation of Early Development
                                                                                          1. Haeckel's "Ontogeny Recapitulates Phylogeny"
                                                                                            1. Historical Context
                                                                                              1. Modern Interpretation
                                                                                                1. Von Baer's Laws
                                                                                                2. Conservation of Developmental Pathways
                                                                                                  1. Hox Genes
                                                                                                    1. Developmental Constraints
                                                                                                  2. Molecular and Genetic Evidence
                                                                                                    1. Universal Genetic Code
                                                                                                      1. Minor Variations
                                                                                                      2. DNA Sequencing and Comparison
                                                                                                        1. Mitochondrial DNA
                                                                                                          1. Maternal Inheritance
                                                                                                            1. High Mutation Rate
                                                                                                            2. Nuclear DNA
                                                                                                              1. Protein-Coding Genes
                                                                                                                1. Non-Coding Regions
                                                                                                              2. Protein Similarities
                                                                                                                1. Amino Acid Sequence Comparisons
                                                                                                                  1. Structural Homology
                                                                                                                  2. Pseudogenes
                                                                                                                    1. Non-Functional Gene Copies
                                                                                                                      1. Shared Pseudogenes
                                                                                                                      2. Molecular Clocks
                                                                                                                        1. Calibration Methods
                                                                                                                          1. Rate Variation
                                                                                                                            1. Limitations and Assumptions
                                                                                                                            2. Endogenous Retroviruses
                                                                                                                              1. Shared Insertions

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                                                                                                                          2. Mechanisms of Evolutionary Change

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                                                                                                                          4. Speciation and the Origin of Species