Energy and Environment

4.

Renewable Energy Technologies

4.1.

Solar Energy Resources

4.1.1.

Solar Radiation Fundamentals

4.1.1.1.

4.1.1.2.

Atmospheric Attenuation

4.1.1.3.

Direct and Diffuse Radiation

4.1.2.

Solar Resource Assessment

4.1.2.1.

Insolation Measurement

4.1.2.2.

Geographic Variability

4.1.2.3.

Temporal Variations

4.1.2.4.

Solar Maps and Databases

4.2.

Photovoltaic Systems

4.2.1.

Photovoltaic Effect

4.2.1.1.

Semiconductor Physics

4.2.1.2.

P-N Junction Behavior

4.2.1.3.

Current-Voltage Characteristics

4.2.2.

PV Cell Technologies

4.2.2.1.

Crystalline Silicon

4.2.2.1.1.

Monocrystalline Silicon

4.2.2.1.2.

Polycrystalline Silicon

4.2.2.2.

Thin-film Technologies

4.2.2.2.1.

Amorphous Silicon

4.2.2.2.2.

Cadmium Telluride

4.2.2.2.3.

Copper Indium Gallium Selenide

4.2.2.3.

Emerging Technologies

4.2.2.3.1.

Perovskite Cells

4.2.2.3.2.

Organic Photovoltaics

4.2.2.3.3.

Concentrated Photovoltaics

4.2.3.

System Components

4.2.3.1.

4.2.3.2.

Power Electronics

4.2.3.2.1.

4.2.3.2.2.

Maximum Power Point Tracking

4.2.3.3.

Balance of System

4.2.3.3.1.

Mounting Structures

4.2.3.3.2.

Wiring and Safety Equipment

4.2.3.4.

Energy Storage Integration

4.2.4.

System Design and Installation

4.2.4.1.

Site Assessment

4.2.4.2.

4.2.4.3.

Grid Connection

4.2.4.4.

Performance Monitoring

4.2.5.

Environmental Considerations

4.2.5.1.

Manufacturing Impacts

4.2.5.2.

Material Use and Toxicity

4.2.5.3.

End-of-life Management

4.2.5.4.

Land Use Requirements

4.3.

Concentrated Solar Power

4.3.1.

CSP Technologies

4.3.1.1.

Parabolic Trough Systems

4.3.1.2.

Solar Power Towers

4.3.1.3.

Dish Stirling Systems

4.3.1.4.

Linear Fresnel Reflectors

4.3.2.

Thermal Energy Storage

4.3.2.1.

Sensible Heat Storage

4.3.2.2.

Latent Heat Storage

4.3.2.3.

Thermochemical Storage

4.3.3.

Heat Transfer Fluids

4.3.3.1.

4.3.3.2.

4.3.3.3.

4.3.4.

Environmental Impacts

4.3.4.1.

Water Use Requirements

4.3.4.2.

Land Use Intensity

4.3.4.3.

Wildlife Impacts

4.4.

Wind Energy Systems

4.4.1.

Wind Resource Characteristics

4.4.1.1.

Wind Speed Distributions

4.4.1.2.

Wind Shear and Turbulence

4.4.1.3.

Seasonal and Diurnal Variations

4.4.2.

Wind Resource Assessment

4.4.2.1.

Measurement Techniques

4.4.2.2.

4.4.2.3.

Micrositing Considerations

4.4.3.

Wind Turbine Technology

4.4.3.1.

Aerodynamic Principles

4.4.3.2.

Turbine Components

4.4.3.2.1.

4.4.3.2.2.

Hub and Drive Train

4.4.3.2.3.

Nacelle Systems

4.4.3.2.4.

Tower Structures

4.4.3.3.

Control Systems

4.4.3.3.1.

4.4.3.3.2.

4.4.3.3.3.

Power Regulation

4.4.4.

Wind Farm Development

4.4.4.1.

Onshore Wind Farms

4.4.4.1.1.

4.4.4.1.2.

Layout Optimization

4.4.4.1.3.

Grid Integration

4.4.4.2.

Offshore Wind Farms

4.4.4.2.1.

Foundation Technologies

4.4.4.2.2.

Installation Challenges

4.4.4.2.3.

Transmission Systems

4.4.5.

Environmental and Social Impacts

4.4.5.1.

Noise Generation

4.4.5.2.

4.4.5.3.

Wildlife Interactions

4.4.5.3.1.

Bird and Bat Mortality

4.4.5.3.2.

Mitigation Strategies

4.4.5.4.

Community Acceptance

4.4.5.5.

Land Use Compatibility

4.5.

Hydropower Systems

4.5.1.

Hydrological Principles

4.5.1.1.

4.5.1.2.

Watershed Characteristics

4.5.1.3.

Flow Duration Curves

4.5.2.

Hydropower Classifications

4.5.2.1.

Large-scale Hydropower

4.5.2.2.

Small-scale Hydropower

4.5.2.3.

Micro-hydropower

4.5.2.4.

Run-of-river Systems

4.5.3.

Dam and Reservoir Systems

4.5.3.1.

Dam Types and Construction

4.5.3.2.

Reservoir Operations

4.5.3.3.

Multipurpose Projects

4.5.4.

Turbine Technologies

4.5.4.1.

Impulse Turbines

4.5.4.1.1.

4.5.4.1.2.

4.5.4.2.

Reaction Turbines

4.5.4.2.1.

Francis Turbines

4.5.4.2.2.

Kaplan Turbines

4.5.5.

Environmental Impacts

4.5.5.1.

Ecosystem Alteration

4.5.5.2.

Fish Migration Barriers

4.5.5.3.

Sediment Trapping

4.5.5.4.

Downstream Flow Changes

4.5.5.5.

Reservoir Methane Emissions

4.5.6.

Pumped Storage Hydropower

4.5.6.1.

Operating Principles

4.5.6.2.

Grid Balancing Role

4.5.6.3.

Environmental Considerations

4.6.

Geothermal Energy

4.6.1.

Geothermal Resources

4.6.1.1.

Earth's Heat Sources

4.6.1.2.

Geothermal Gradients

4.6.1.3.

Resource Classifications

4.6.1.3.1.

Hydrothermal Systems

4.6.1.3.2.

Enhanced Geothermal Systems

4.6.1.3.3.

Geopressured Systems

4.6.2.

Resource Exploration

4.6.2.1.

Geological Surveys

4.6.2.2.

Geophysical Methods

4.6.2.3.

Geochemical Analysis

4.6.3.

Geothermal Power Generation

4.6.3.1.

Dry Steam Plants

4.6.3.2.

Flash Steam Plants

4.6.3.3.

Binary Cycle Plants

4.6.3.4.

Enhanced Geothermal Systems

4.6.4.

Direct Use Applications

4.6.4.1.

4.6.4.2.

Industrial Process Heat

4.6.4.3.

Agricultural Applications

4.6.4.4.

4.6.5.

Geothermal Heat Pumps

4.6.5.1.

Ground Source Heat Pumps

4.6.5.2.

System Design Principles

4.6.5.3.

Performance Characteristics

4.6.6.

Environmental Considerations

4.6.6.1.

Induced Seismicity

4.6.6.2.

Subsidence Risks

4.6.6.3.

Water and Gas Emissions

4.6.6.4.

Land Use Impacts

4.7.

Biomass and Bioenergy

4.7.1.

Biomass Resources

4.7.1.1.

4.7.1.2.

Agricultural Residues

4.7.1.3.

4.7.1.3.1.

Woody Energy Crops

4.7.1.3.2.

Herbaceous Energy Crops

4.7.1.4.

4.7.1.5.

Municipal Solid Waste

4.7.1.6.

4.7.2.

Biomass Conversion Technologies

4.7.2.1.

Thermochemical Conversion

4.7.2.1.1.

Direct Combustion

4.7.2.1.2.

4.7.2.1.3.

4.7.2.1.4.

4.7.2.2.

Biochemical Conversion

4.7.2.2.1.

4.7.2.2.2.

Anaerobic Digestion

4.7.2.2.3.

Enzymatic Hydrolysis

4.7.3.

Biofuel Production

4.7.3.1.

First-generation Biofuels

4.7.3.1.1.

Ethanol from Corn and Sugarcane

4.7.3.1.2.

Biodiesel from Vegetable Oils

4.7.3.2.

Second-generation Biofuels

4.7.3.2.1.

Cellulosic Ethanol

4.7.3.2.2.

Fischer-Tropsch Diesel

4.7.3.3.

Third-generation Biofuels

4.7.3.3.1.

4.7.3.3.2.

Advanced Biofuels

4.7.4.

Sustainability Considerations

4.7.4.1.

Land Use Change

4.7.4.2.

Food vs Fuel Competition

4.7.4.3.

Water Requirements

4.7.4.4.

Soil Health Impacts

4.7.4.5.

Biodiversity Effects

4.7.4.6.

Lifecycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions

4.8.

4.8.1.

4.8.1.1.

Wave Resource Characteristics

4.8.1.2.

Wave Energy Converters

4.8.1.3.

Environmental Impacts

4.8.2.

4.8.2.1.

Tidal Resource Assessment

4.8.2.2.

4.8.2.3.

4.8.3.

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

4.8.3.1.

OTEC Principles

4.8.3.2.

System Components

4.8.3.3.

Environmental Considerations

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