Cell and Tissue Engineering

7.

Tissue-Specific Applications

7.1.

Skin Tissue Engineering

7.1.1.

Skin Structure and Function

7.1.1.1.

7.1.1.2.

7.1.1.3.

7.1.2.

Skin Substitutes

7.1.2.1.

Epidermal Substitutes

7.1.2.1.1.

Keratinocyte Sheets

7.1.2.1.2.

7.1.2.2.

Dermal Substitutes

7.1.2.2.1.

Acellular Dermal Matrices

7.1.2.2.2.

Collagen-Based Scaffolds

7.1.2.3.

Full-Thickness Substitutes

7.1.2.3.1.

Bilayered Constructs

7.1.2.3.2.

Cellular Skin Equivalents

7.1.3.

Clinical Applications

7.1.3.1.

7.1.3.2.

Chronic Wound Healing

7.1.3.3.

Cosmetic Applications

7.2.

Bone Tissue Engineering

7.2.1.

7.2.1.1.

7.2.1.2.

7.2.1.3.

Bone Remodeling

7.2.2.

Bone Defect Repair

7.2.2.1.

Critical-Sized Defects

7.2.2.2.

Scaffold Requirements

7.2.2.3.

Osteoinductive Factors

7.2.3.

7.2.3.1.

Fracture Healing

7.2.3.2.

7.2.3.3.

Dental Applications

7.2.3.4.

Maxillofacial Reconstruction

7.3.

Cartilage Tissue Engineering

7.3.1.

Cartilage Biology

7.3.1.1.

Cartilage Types

7.3.1.2.

Chondrocyte Function

7.3.1.3.

ECM Composition

7.3.2.

Articular Cartilage Repair

7.3.2.1.

Zonal Organization

7.3.2.2.

Mechanical Properties

7.3.2.3.

Integration Challenges

7.3.3.

Clinical Applications

7.3.3.1.

Osteoarthritis Treatment

7.3.3.2.

Sports Injuries

7.3.3.3.

Joint Resurfacing

7.4.

Cardiovascular Tissue Engineering

7.4.1.

Cardiovascular System

7.4.1.1.

Heart Structure

7.4.1.2.

Blood Vessel Architecture

7.4.1.3.

7.4.2.

Blood Vessel Engineering

7.4.2.1.

Small-Diameter Vessels

7.4.2.2.

Endothelialization

7.4.2.3.

Mechanical Properties

7.4.3.

Heart Valve Engineering

7.4.3.1.

Valve Structure and Function

7.4.3.2.

Scaffold Design

7.4.3.3.

Durability Requirements

7.4.4.

Cardiac Tissue Engineering

7.4.4.1.

Myocardial Patches

7.4.4.2.

7.4.4.3.

Electrical Integration

7.5.

Neural Tissue Engineering

7.5.1.

Nervous System Structure

7.5.1.1.

Central Nervous System

7.5.1.2.

Peripheral Nervous System

7.5.1.3.

Neural Cell Types

7.5.2.

Peripheral Nerve Repair

7.5.2.1.

Nerve Guidance Conduits

7.5.2.2.

Neurotrophic Factors

7.5.2.3.

Regeneration Mechanisms

7.5.3.

Central Nervous System Repair

7.5.3.1.

Spinal Cord Injury

7.5.3.2.

7.5.3.3.

Neurodegenerative Diseases

7.6.

Musculoskeletal Tissue Engineering

7.6.1.

Skeletal Muscle Engineering

7.6.1.1.

Muscle Structure

7.6.1.2.

7.6.1.3.

Contractile Function

7.6.2.

Tendon and Ligament Engineering

7.6.2.1.

Collagen Organization

7.6.2.2.

Mechanical Loading

7.6.2.3.

Healing Mechanisms

7.7.

Other Tissue Applications

7.7.1.

Liver Tissue Engineering

7.7.1.1.

Hepatocyte Function

7.7.1.2.

Liver Architecture

7.7.1.3.

Metabolic Requirements

7.7.2.

Pancreatic Tissue Engineering

7.7.2.1.

Islet Transplantation

7.7.2.2.

Encapsulation Strategies

7.7.2.3.

Immunoisolation

7.7.3.

Corneal Tissue Engineering

7.7.3.1.

Corneal Structure

7.7.3.2.

Transparency Requirements

7.7.3.3.

Epithelial and Stromal Engineering

7.7.4.

Bladder Tissue Engineering

7.7.4.1.

Urothelial Engineering

7.7.4.2.

Smooth Muscle Engineering

7.7.4.3.

Compliance Requirements

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8. Characterization and Evaluation