The Economics of Innovation and Technology

2.

The Process of Innovation

2.1.

Models of the Innovative Process

2.1.1.

The Linear Model

2.1.1.1.

Science Push Model

2.1.1.1.1.

Basic Research to Applied Research

2.1.1.1.2.

Technology Transfer Mechanisms

2.1.1.2.

Demand Pull Model

2.1.1.2.1.

Market Needs Driving Innovation

2.1.1.2.2.

Customer-Driven Development

2.1.1.3.

Critiques of the Linear Model

2.1.1.3.1.

Oversimplification of Innovation Process

2.1.1.3.2.

Lack of Feedback Mechanisms

2.1.2.

The Chain-Linked Model

2.1.2.1.

Feedback Loops in Innovation

2.1.2.1.1.

Market-Research Interactions

2.1.2.1.2.

Iterative Development Process

2.1.2.2.

Integration of Research and Market Needs

2.1.2.2.1.

Simultaneous Development Paths

2.1.2.2.2.

Knowledge Integration

2.1.3.

Open Innovation Models

2.1.3.1.

Inbound Open Innovation

2.1.3.1.1.

External Knowledge Acquisition

2.1.3.1.2.

Technology Scouting

2.1.3.2.

Outbound Open Innovation

2.1.3.2.1.

Technology Licensing Out

2.1.3.2.2.

Spin-offs and Ventures

2.1.3.3.

Collaborative Innovation Networks

2.1.3.3.1.

Multi-partner Alliances

2.1.3.3.2.

Innovation Ecosystems

2.1.4.

Stage-Gate Models

2.1.4.1.

Development Stage Management

2.1.4.2.

Decision Points and Criteria

2.1.4.3.

Resource Allocation Mechanisms

2.2.

Sources of Innovation

2.2.1.

Corporate R&D Laboratories

2.2.1.1.

Internal R&D Structures

2.2.1.1.1.

Centralized vs Decentralized R&D

2.2.1.1.2.

R&D Organization Models

2.2.1.2.

Corporate Innovation Strategies

2.2.1.2.1.

Technology Roadmapping

2.2.1.2.2.

Innovation Portfolio Management

2.2.2.

Universities and Public Research Institutions

2.2.2.1.

Academic Research Contributions

2.2.2.1.1.

Basic Research Focus

2.2.2.1.2.

Long-term Research Horizons

2.2.2.2.

Technology Transfer Offices

2.2.2.2.1.

Commercialization Support

2.2.2.2.2.

Industry Partnerships

2.2.2.3.

Research Universities vs Teaching Universities

2.2.3.

Government-Funded Research

2.2.3.1.

Public Research Programs

2.2.3.1.1.

National Science Foundations

2.2.3.1.2.

Mission-Oriented Research

2.2.3.2.

National Laboratories

2.2.3.2.1.

Government Research Facilities

2.2.3.2.2.

Public-Private Partnerships

2.2.4.

Individual Inventors and Entrepreneurs

2.2.4.1.

Role of Startups

2.2.4.1.1.

New Venture Creation

2.2.4.1.2.

Entrepreneurial Innovation

2.2.4.2.

Entrepreneurial Ecosystems

2.2.4.2.1.

Support Infrastructure

2.2.4.2.2.

Venture Capital Networks

2.2.5.

User Innovation and Lead Users

2.2.5.1.

User-Driven Product Development

2.2.5.1.1.

Customer Co-creation

2.2.5.1.2.

User Feedback Integration

2.2.5.2.

Communities of Practice

2.2.5.2.1.

Knowledge Sharing Networks

2.2.5.2.2.

Collaborative Innovation

2.2.6.

Suppliers and Value Chain Partners

2.2.6.1.

Supplier Innovation Contributions

2.2.6.2.

Vertical Innovation Networks

2.3.

Economics of Research and Development

2.3.1.

Firm-Level R&D Investment Decisions

2.3.1.1.

Determinants of R&D Spending

2.3.1.1.1.

Market Size and Growth

2.3.1.1.2.

Competitive Pressure

2.3.1.1.3.

Technological Opportunity

2.3.1.2.

R&D Portfolio Management

2.3.1.2.1.

Risk-Return Trade-offs

2.3.1.2.2.

Project Selection Criteria

2.3.2.

Basic Research vs Applied Research vs Development

2.3.2.1.

Characteristics of Basic Research

2.3.2.1.1.

Scientific Knowledge Creation

2.3.2.1.2.

Long-term Uncertainty

2.3.2.1.3.

Public Good Nature

2.3.2.2.

Characteristics of Applied Research

2.3.2.2.1.

Problem-Solving Focus

2.3.2.2.2.

Commercial Applications

2.3.2.3.

Characteristics of Development Activities

2.3.2.3.1.

Product and Process Development

2.3.2.3.2.

Market Preparation

2.3.3.

Measuring R&D Inputs and Outputs

2.3.3.1.

R&D Expenditure Metrics

2.3.3.1.1.

R&D Intensity Ratios

2.3.3.1.2.

International Comparisons

2.3.3.2.

Innovation Output Indicators

2.3.3.2.1.

2.3.3.2.2.

New Product Introductions

2.3.3.2.3.

Innovation Surveys

2.3.4.

R&D Intensity and its Determinants

2.3.4.1.

Industry Differences

2.3.4.1.1.

High-tech vs Low-tech Industries

2.3.4.1.2.

Sectoral Innovation Patterns

2.3.4.2.

Country-Level Comparisons

2.3.4.2.1.

National Innovation Systems

2.3.4.2.2.

Policy Influences

2.3.5.

R&D Productivity and Efficiency

2.3.5.1.

Measuring R&D Returns

2.3.5.2.

Factors Affecting R&D Productivity

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1. Foundations of Innovation Economics

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3. Intellectual Property Rights