Research Methods in Geography

4.

Geospatial Data and Technologies

4.1.

Geographic Information Systems

4.1.1.

GIS Fundamentals

4.1.1.1.

Spatial Data Concepts

4.1.1.1.1.

Geographic Features

4.1.1.1.2.

Spatial Relationships

4.1.1.1.3.

Coordinate Systems

4.1.1.1.4.

Map Projections

4.1.1.2.

4.1.1.2.1.

Vector Data Model

4.1.1.2.2.

Raster Data Model

4.1.1.2.3.

Object-oriented Model

4.1.1.2.4.

Network Data Model

4.1.1.3.

Database Concepts

4.1.1.3.1.

Spatial Databases

4.1.1.3.2.

Attribute Tables

4.1.1.3.3.

Relational Structures

4.1.1.3.4.

Spatial Indexing

4.1.2.

Vector Data Analysis

4.1.2.1.

4.1.2.1.1.

Point Pattern Analysis

4.1.2.1.2.

Density Calculations

4.1.2.1.3.

Clustering Detection

4.1.2.1.4.

Nearest Neighbor Analysis

4.1.2.2.

4.1.2.2.1.

Network Analysis

4.1.2.2.2.

Connectivity Analysis

4.1.2.2.3.

4.1.2.2.4.

Route Optimization

4.1.2.3.

Polygon Analysis

4.1.2.3.1.

Area Calculations

4.1.2.3.2.

Overlay Operations

4.1.2.3.3.

4.1.2.3.4.

Boundary Analysis

4.1.2.4.

Spatial Operations

4.1.2.4.1.

4.1.2.4.2.

4.1.2.4.3.

4.1.2.4.4.

4.1.3.

Raster Data Analysis

4.1.3.1.

Raster Fundamentals

4.1.3.1.1.

Cell Size and Resolution

4.1.3.1.2.

4.1.3.1.3.

Coordinate Systems

4.1.3.1.4.

Resampling Methods

4.1.3.2.

4.1.3.2.1.

Local Operations

4.1.3.2.2.

Focal Operations

4.1.3.2.3.

Zonal Operations

4.1.3.2.4.

Global Operations

4.1.3.3.

Surface Analysis

4.1.3.3.1.

Elevation Models

4.1.3.3.2.

Slope and Aspect

4.1.3.3.3.

Viewshed Analysis

4.1.3.3.4.

Watershed Delineation

4.1.3.4.

Raster Classification

4.1.3.4.1.

Supervised Classification

4.1.3.4.2.

Unsupervised Classification

4.1.3.4.3.

Accuracy Assessment

4.1.3.4.4.

Change Detection

4.1.4.

Spatial Data Quality

4.1.4.1.

Data Quality Components

4.1.4.1.1.

Positional Accuracy

4.1.4.1.2.

Attribute Accuracy

4.1.4.1.3.

4.1.4.1.4.

Logical Consistency

4.1.4.1.5.

Temporal Quality

4.1.4.2.

4.1.4.2.1.

Data Collection Errors

4.1.4.2.2.

Processing Errors

4.1.4.2.3.

Conversion Errors

4.1.4.2.4.

Propagation Effects

4.1.4.3.

Quality Assessment

4.1.4.3.1.

Accuracy Testing

4.1.4.3.2.

Validation Methods

4.1.4.3.3.

Uncertainty Analysis

4.1.4.3.4.

Metadata Documentation

4.2.

4.2.1.

Physical Principles

4.2.1.1.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

4.2.1.1.1.

Wavelength Regions

4.2.1.1.2.

Atmospheric Windows

4.2.1.1.3.

Spectral Signatures

4.2.1.1.4.

Reflectance Properties

4.2.1.2.

Energy Interactions

4.2.1.2.1.

4.2.1.2.2.

4.2.1.2.3.

4.2.1.2.4.

4.2.1.3.

Atmospheric Effects

4.2.1.3.1.

4.2.1.3.2.

4.2.1.3.3.

Atmospheric Correction

4.2.1.3.4.

4.2.2.

4.2.2.1.

Passive Sensors

4.2.2.1.1.

Optical Sensors

4.2.2.1.2.

Thermal Sensors

4.2.2.1.3.

Microwave Radiometers

4.2.2.1.4.

Hyperspectral Sensors

4.2.2.2.

4.2.2.2.1.

4.2.2.2.2.

4.2.2.2.3.

4.2.2.2.4.

Laser Altimeters

4.2.2.3.

4.2.2.3.1.

Satellite Platforms

4.2.2.3.2.

Aircraft Platforms

4.2.2.3.3.

4.2.2.3.4.

Ground-based Platforms

4.2.3.

Image Processing

4.2.3.1.

4.2.3.1.1.

Radiometric Correction

4.2.3.1.2.

Geometric Correction

4.2.3.1.3.

Atmospheric Correction

4.2.3.1.4.

Noise Reduction

4.2.3.2.

Enhancement Techniques

4.2.3.2.1.

Contrast Enhancement

4.2.3.2.2.

Spatial Filtering

4.2.3.2.3.

Spectral Enhancement

4.2.3.2.4.

Temporal Enhancement

4.2.3.3.

Classification Methods

4.2.3.3.1.

Pixel-based Classification

4.2.3.3.2.

Object-based Classification

4.2.3.3.3.

Machine Learning Approaches

4.2.3.3.4.

4.2.3.4.

Change Detection

4.2.3.4.1.

Image Differencing

4.2.3.4.2.

4.2.3.4.3.

Principal Component Analysis

4.2.3.4.4.

Time Series Analysis

4.2.4.

4.2.4.1.

Land Cover Mapping

4.2.4.1.1.

Classification Schemes

4.2.4.1.2.

Accuracy Assessment

4.2.4.1.3.

Change Detection

4.2.4.1.4.

Monitoring Programs

4.2.4.2.

Environmental Monitoring

4.2.4.2.1.

Vegetation Monitoring

4.2.4.2.2.

Water Quality Assessment

4.2.4.2.3.

Disaster Monitoring

4.2.4.2.4.

Climate Studies

4.2.4.3.

Urban Applications

4.2.4.3.1.

Urban Growth Monitoring

4.2.4.3.2.

Infrastructure Mapping

4.2.4.3.3.

Heat Island Studies

4.2.4.3.4.

Population Estimation

4.3.

Global Positioning Systems

4.3.1.

GPS Fundamentals

4.3.1.1.

System Components

4.3.1.1.1.

4.3.1.1.2.

Control Segment

4.3.1.1.3.

4.3.1.1.4.

Signal Structure

4.3.1.2.

Positioning Principles

4.3.1.2.1.

4.3.1.2.2.

Time Measurement

4.3.1.2.3.

Satellite Geometry

4.3.1.2.4.

Dilution of Precision

4.3.1.3.

Coordinate Systems

4.3.1.3.1.

4.3.1.3.2.

4.3.1.3.3.

Coordinate Transformations

4.3.1.3.4.

4.3.2.

GPS Data Collection

4.3.2.1.

4.3.2.1.1.

Navigation Receivers

4.3.2.1.2.

Mapping Receivers

4.3.2.1.3.

Survey Receivers

4.3.2.1.4.

Timing Receivers

4.3.2.2.

Field Procedures

4.3.2.2.1.

Mission Planning

4.3.2.2.2.

Data Collection Protocols

4.3.2.2.3.

Quality Control

4.3.2.2.4.

Post-processing

4.3.2.3.

4.3.2.3.1.

4.3.2.3.2.

4.3.2.3.3.

Proprietary Formats

4.3.2.3.4.

Exchange Standards

4.3.3.

Accuracy and Precision

4.3.3.1.

4.3.3.1.1.

Satellite Errors

4.3.3.1.2.

Atmospheric Errors

4.3.3.1.3.

Receiver Errors

4.3.3.1.4.

Multipath Effects

4.3.3.2.

Accuracy Improvement

4.3.3.2.1.

Differential GPS

4.3.3.2.2.

Real-time Kinematic

4.3.3.2.3.

Post-processing

4.3.3.2.4.

Augmentation Systems

4.3.3.3.

Quality Assessment

4.3.3.3.1.

Precision Estimates

4.3.3.3.2.

Accuracy Testing

4.3.3.3.3.

Statistical Analysis

4.3.3.3.4.

Uncertainty Quantification

4.4.

Emerging Technologies

4.4.1.

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles

4.4.1.1.

4.4.1.1.1.

Fixed-wing UAVs

4.4.1.1.2.

Rotary-wing UAVs

4.4.1.1.3.

4.4.1.1.4.

Autonomous Systems

4.4.1.2.

Sensor Integration

4.4.1.2.1.

Optical Cameras

4.4.1.2.2.

Multispectral Sensors

4.4.1.2.3.

Thermal Cameras

4.4.1.2.4.

4.4.1.3.

Flight Planning

4.4.1.3.1.

4.4.1.3.2.

Flight Patterns

4.4.1.3.3.

Safety Considerations

4.4.1.3.4.

Regulatory Compliance

4.4.1.4.

Data Processing

4.4.1.4.1.

Image Mosaicking

4.4.1.4.2.

3D Reconstruction

4.4.1.4.3.

Point Cloud Processing

4.4.1.4.4.

Automated Analysis

4.4.2.

Mobile GIS and Location-Based Services

4.4.2.1.

Mobile Platforms

4.4.2.1.1.

4.4.2.1.2.

4.4.2.1.3.

Dedicated Devices

4.4.2.1.4.

Wearable Technology

4.4.2.2.

Location Technologies

4.4.2.2.1.

GPS Integration

4.4.2.2.2.

Network-based Positioning

4.4.2.2.3.

4.4.2.2.4.

Indoor Positioning

4.4.2.3.

4.4.2.3.1.

Field Data Collection

4.4.2.3.2.

Real-time Mapping

4.4.2.3.3.

Navigation Services

4.4.2.3.4.

Location Analytics

4.4.3.

Big Data and Cloud Computing

4.4.3.1.

Big Data Characteristics

4.4.3.1.1.

4.4.3.1.2.

4.4.3.1.3.

4.4.3.1.4.

4.4.3.2.

Cloud Platforms

4.4.3.2.1.

Infrastructure as a Service

4.4.3.2.2.

Platform as a Service

4.4.3.2.3.

Software as a Service

4.4.3.2.4.

Geospatial Cloud Services

4.4.3.3.

Processing Frameworks

4.4.3.3.1.

Distributed Computing

4.4.3.3.2.

Parallel Processing

4.4.3.3.3.

Stream Processing

4.4.3.3.4.

Machine Learning Platforms

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5. Data Analysis and Interpretation