Plant Hormones

2.

Major Plant Hormone Classes

2.1.

2.1.1.

Discovery and Historical Context

2.1.1.1.

Role in Tropism Studies

2.1.1.2.

Isolation of Indole-3-Acetic Acid

2.1.1.3.

Early Bioassays

2.1.2.

Chemical Structure and Types

2.1.2.1.

2.1.2.1.1.

Indole-3-Acetic Acid

2.1.2.1.2.

Indole-3-Butyric Acid

2.1.2.1.3.

Phenylacetic Acid

2.1.2.2.

Synthetic Auxins

2.1.2.2.1.

Naphthaleneacetic Acid

2.1.2.2.2.

2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic Acid

2.1.2.2.3.

Indole-3-Butyric Acid

2.1.3.

Biosynthesis Pathways

2.1.3.1.

Tryptophan-Dependent Pathways

2.1.3.1.1.

Indole-3-Pyruvic Acid Pathway

2.1.3.1.2.

Tryptamine Pathway

2.1.3.1.3.

Indole-3-Acetaldoxime Pathway

2.1.3.2.

Tryptophan-Independent Pathways

2.1.3.3.

Regulation of Biosynthesis

2.1.4.

Metabolism and Conjugation

2.1.4.1.

Conjugation to Amino Acids

2.1.4.2.

Conjugation to Sugars

2.1.4.3.

Oxidative Degradation

2.1.4.4.

Storage and Release Mechanisms

2.1.5.

Transport Mechanisms

2.1.5.1.

Polar Auxin Transport

2.1.5.1.1.

Chemiosmotic Model

2.1.5.1.2.

2.1.5.2.

Transport Proteins

2.1.5.2.1.

PIN Efflux Carriers

2.1.5.2.2.

AUX/LAX Influx Carriers

2.1.5.2.3.

ABCB Transporters

2.1.5.3.

Long-Distance Transport

2.1.5.3.1.

Phloem Transport

2.1.5.3.2.

Xylem Transport

2.1.6.

Physiological Functions

2.1.6.1.

Cell Elongation

2.1.6.1.1.

Acid Growth Hypothesis

2.1.6.1.2.

Cell Wall Loosening

2.1.6.1.3.

Osmotic Adjustment

2.1.6.2.

Apical Dominance

2.1.6.2.1.

Mechanism of Action

2.1.6.2.2.

Correlative Inhibition

2.1.6.3.

Root Development

2.1.6.3.1.

Primary Root Growth

2.1.6.3.2.

Lateral Root Formation

2.1.6.3.3.

Adventitious Root Formation

2.1.6.4.

2.1.6.4.1.

Phototropism Mechanisms

2.1.6.4.2.

Gravitropism Responses

2.1.6.4.3.

2.1.6.5.

Vascular Development

2.1.6.5.1.

Cambial Activity

2.1.6.5.2.

Xylem Differentiation

2.1.6.5.3.

Phloem Differentiation

2.1.6.6.

Fruit Development

2.1.6.6.1.

2.1.6.6.2.

2.1.6.6.3.

Prevention of Abscission

2.2.

2.2.1.

Discovery and Identification

2.2.1.1.

Bakanae Disease Studies

2.2.1.2.

Isolation from Gibberella fujikuroi

2.2.1.3.

Structural Elucidation

2.2.2.

Chemical Structure

2.2.2.1.

Diterpenoid Nature

2.2.2.2.

Structural Diversity

2.2.2.3.

Bioactive Forms

2.2.2.3.1.

2.2.2.3.2.

2.2.2.3.3.

2.2.2.3.4.

2.2.3.

Biosynthesis Pathways

2.2.3.1.

2.2.3.1.1.

Geranylgeranyl Diphosphate Formation

2.2.3.1.2.

ent-Kaurene Synthesis

2.2.3.2.

Endoplasmic Reticulum Phase

2.2.3.2.1.

Oxidation Reactions

2.2.3.3.

Cytosolic Phase

2.2.3.3.1.

Final Modifications

2.2.3.4.

Regulation of Biosynthesis

2.2.4.

Metabolism and Deactivation

2.2.4.1.

2β-Hydroxylation

2.2.4.2.

Conjugation Reactions

2.2.4.3.

Catabolism Pathways

2.2.5.

Physiological Roles

2.2.5.1.

Stem Elongation

2.2.5.1.1.

Internode Extension

2.2.5.1.2.

Cell Division and Expansion

2.2.5.2.

Seed Germination

2.2.5.2.1.

Dormancy Breaking

2.2.5.2.2.

Reserve Mobilization

2.2.5.2.3.

Enzyme Induction

2.2.5.3.

Flowering Induction

2.2.5.3.1.

Vernalization Replacement

2.2.5.3.2.

Photoperiod Interactions

2.2.5.4.

Fruit Development

2.2.5.4.1.

2.2.5.4.2.

Parthenocarpy Induction

2.2.5.4.3.

2.2.5.5.

Other Functions

2.2.5.5.1.

Pollen Development

2.2.5.5.2.

Bud Dormancy Breaking

2.2.5.5.3.

2.3.

2.3.1.

Discovery and Early Research

2.3.1.1.

Cell Division Studies

2.3.1.2.

Kinetin Identification

2.3.1.3.

Natural Cytokinin Discovery

2.3.2.

Chemical Structure

2.3.2.1.

Adenine Derivatives

2.3.2.2.

Natural Cytokinins

2.3.2.2.1.

2.3.2.2.2.

Isopentenyladenine

2.3.2.2.3.

2.3.2.3.

Synthetic Cytokinins

2.3.2.3.1.

2.3.2.3.2.

Benzylaminopurine

2.3.2.3.3.

2.3.3.

Biosynthesis and Metabolism

2.3.3.1.

Synthesis Locations

2.3.3.1.1.

2.3.3.1.2.

Developing Seeds

2.3.3.1.3.

2.3.3.2.

Biosynthetic Pathways

2.3.3.2.1.

tRNA Degradation Pathway

2.3.3.2.2.

De Novo Synthesis

2.3.3.3.

Conjugation and Degradation

2.3.3.3.1.

Cytokinin Oxidase Activity

2.3.3.3.2.

Conjugate Formation

2.3.4.

Transport Mechanisms

2.3.4.1.

Xylem Transport

2.3.4.1.1.

Root-to-Shoot Movement

2.3.4.1.2.

Transpiration Stream

2.3.4.2.

Phloem Transport

2.3.4.3.

2.3.5.

Physiological Functions

2.3.5.1.

Cell Division Promotion

2.3.5.1.1.

Cytokinesis Regulation

2.3.5.1.2.

Cell Cycle Control

2.3.5.2.

Shoot Development

2.3.5.2.1.

2.3.5.2.2.

Shoot Branching

2.3.5.2.3.

Auxin-Cytokinin Interactions

2.3.5.3.

Senescence Delay

2.3.5.3.1.

2.3.5.3.2.

Chlorophyll Retention

2.3.5.3.3.

Protein Synthesis Maintenance

2.3.5.4.

Nutrient Mobilization

2.3.5.4.1.

Source-Sink Relationships

2.3.5.4.2.

Metabolite Transport

2.3.5.5.

Other Functions

2.3.5.5.1.

Chloroplast Development

2.3.5.5.2.

Stomatal Opening

2.3.5.5.3.

Root Growth Inhibition

2.4.

2.4.1.

Discovery and Nomenclature

2.4.1.1.

Abscission Studies

2.4.1.2.

Dormancy Research

2.4.1.3.

Stress Hormone Identification

2.4.2.

Chemical Structure

2.4.2.1.

Sesquiterpenoid Nature

2.4.2.2.

2.4.2.3.

2.4.3.

Biosynthesis Pathways

2.4.3.1.

Carotenoid Precursor Pathway

2.4.3.1.1.

Zeaxanthin Cleavage

2.4.3.1.2.

Xanthoxin Formation

2.4.3.1.3.

ABA Aldehyde Intermediate

2.4.3.2.

Synthesis Locations

2.4.3.2.1.

2.4.3.2.2.

Vascular Tissues

2.4.3.2.3.

2.4.3.3.

Environmental Regulation

2.4.3.3.1.

Water Stress Induction

2.4.3.3.2.

Temperature Effects

2.4.3.3.3.

Light Influences

2.4.4.

Metabolism and Transport

2.4.4.1.

Catabolic Pathways

2.4.4.1.1.

8'-Hydroxylation

2.4.4.1.2.

Conjugation Reactions

2.4.4.2.

Transport Mechanisms

2.4.4.2.1.

Xylem and Phloem Movement

2.4.4.2.2.

Cell-to-Cell Transport

2.4.5.

Physiological Functions

2.4.5.1.

Stomatal Regulation

2.4.5.1.1.

Guard Cell Response

2.4.5.1.2.

Water Stress Adaptation

2.4.5.1.3.

Gas Exchange Control

2.4.5.2.

Dormancy Induction

2.4.5.2.1.

2.4.5.2.2.

2.4.5.2.3.

Maintenance Mechanisms

2.4.5.3.

Stress Responses

2.4.5.3.1.

Drought Tolerance

2.4.5.3.2.

2.4.5.3.3.

Cold Acclimation

2.4.5.4.

Growth Inhibition

2.4.5.4.1.

Shoot Growth Suppression

2.4.5.4.2.

Root Growth Effects

2.4.5.5.

Senescence Promotion

2.4.5.6.

Gene Expression Regulation

2.5.

2.5.1.

Discovery and Recognition

2.5.1.1.

2.5.1.2.

Ripening Effects

2.5.1.3.

Growth Responses

2.5.2.

Chemical Properties

2.5.2.1.

Simple Hydrocarbon Structure

2.5.2.2.

Physical Properties

2.5.2.3.

Biological Activity

2.5.3.

Biosynthesis Pathway

2.5.3.1.

Methionine Cycle

2.5.3.2.

S-Adenosylmethionine Formation

2.5.3.3.

ACC Synthase Activity

2.5.3.4.

ACC Oxidase Function

2.5.3.5.

Regulation Mechanisms

2.5.3.5.1.

Autocatalytic Production

2.5.3.5.2.

Environmental Triggers

2.5.3.5.3.

Developmental Control

2.5.4.

Perception and Transport

2.5.4.1.

Gaseous Diffusion

2.5.4.2.

Cellular Accumulation

2.5.4.3.

Receptor Binding

2.5.5.

Physiological Functions

2.5.5.1.

2.5.5.1.1.

Climacteric Fruits

2.5.5.1.2.

Non-Climacteric Fruits

2.5.5.1.3.

Ripening Coordination

2.5.5.2.

Senescence Processes

2.5.5.2.1.

Leaf Senescence

2.5.5.2.2.

Flower Senescence

2.5.5.2.3.

2.5.5.3.

Abscission Events

2.5.5.3.1.

2.5.5.3.2.

2.5.5.3.3.

2.5.5.4.

Seedling Responses

2.5.5.4.1.

Triple Response

2.5.5.4.2.

Etiolation Effects

2.5.5.4.3.

Emergence Responses

2.5.5.5.

Stress Responses

2.5.5.5.1.

2.5.5.5.2.

Pathogen Attack

2.5.5.5.3.

Flooding Adaptation

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1. Introduction to Plant Hormones

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3. Emerging Plant Growth Regulators