Morphology and Syntax

  1. Morphology: The Structure of Words
    1. The Morpheme
      1. Defining the Morpheme
        1. Smallest Meaningful Unit
          1. Form-Meaning Correspondence
            1. Contrast with Phoneme
              1. Contrast with Word
              2. Identifying Morphemes
                1. Criteria for Identification
                  1. Segmentation Procedures
                    1. Minimal Pairs in Morphology
                      1. Distributional Analysis
                      2. Morphemes vs. Syllables
                        1. Definition of Syllable
                          1. Structural Differences
                            1. Functional Differences
                              1. Examples and Counterexamples
                              2. Problems in Morpheme Identification
                                1. Portmanteau Morphemes
                                  1. Zero Morphemes
                                    1. Discontinuous Morphemes
                                  2. Types of Morphemes
                                    1. Free Morphemes
                                      1. Definition and Properties
                                        1. Independence Criteria
                                          1. Lexical Morphemes
                                            1. Nouns
                                              1. Verbs
                                                1. Adjectives
                                                  1. Adverbs
                                                  2. Functional Morphemes
                                                    1. Prepositions
                                                      1. Conjunctions
                                                        1. Pronouns
                                                          1. Determiners
                                                            1. Auxiliary Verbs
                                                          2. Bound Morphemes
                                                            1. Definition and Properties
                                                              1. Dependency Requirements
                                                                1. Roots
                                                                  1. Definition and Function
                                                                    1. Bound Roots
                                                                      1. Free Roots
                                                                      2. Affixes
                                                                        1. Prefixes
                                                                          1. Suffixes
                                                                            1. Infixes
                                                                              1. Circumfixes
                                                                                1. Interfixes
                                                                                2. Cranberry Morphemes
                                                                                  1. Definition and Examples
                                                                                    1. Historical Development
                                                                                3. Allomorphy
                                                                                  1. Definition and Basic Concepts
                                                                                    1. Types of Allomorphic Variation
                                                                                      1. Phonological Conditioning
                                                                                        1. Assimilation Processes
                                                                                          1. Dissimilation Processes
                                                                                            1. Phonotactic Constraints
                                                                                            2. Morphological Conditioning
                                                                                              1. Morphological Environment Effects
                                                                                                1. Stem Allomorphy
                                                                                                2. Lexical Conditioning
                                                                                                  1. Irregular Forms
                                                                                                    1. Suppletive Allomorphy
                                                                                                  2. Morphophonological Processes
                                                                                                    1. Vowel Harmony
                                                                                                      1. Consonant Mutation
                                                                                                        1. Ablaut
                                                                                                          1. Umlaut
                                                                                                          2. Analyzing Allomorphic Patterns
                                                                                                          3. Inflectional vs. Derivational Morphology
                                                                                                            1. Inflection
                                                                                                              1. Definition and Properties
                                                                                                                1. Grammatical vs. Lexical Function
                                                                                                                  1. Obligatory Nature
                                                                                                                    1. Paradigmatic Organization
                                                                                                                      1. Grammatical Categories
                                                                                                                        1. Tense
                                                                                                                          1. Aspect
                                                                                                                            1. Mood
                                                                                                                              1. Voice
                                                                                                                                1. Person
                                                                                                                                  1. Number
                                                                                                                                    1. Gender
                                                                                                                                      1. Case
                                                                                                                                        1. Definiteness
                                                                                                                                        2. Inflectional Paradigms
                                                                                                                                          1. Regular Paradigms
                                                                                                                                            1. Irregular Paradigms
                                                                                                                                              1. Defective Paradigms
                                                                                                                                              2. Syncretism
                                                                                                                                              3. Derivation
                                                                                                                                                1. Definition and Properties
                                                                                                                                                  1. Word Class Changes
                                                                                                                                                    1. Noun to Verb
                                                                                                                                                      1. Verb to Noun
                                                                                                                                                        1. Adjective to Noun
                                                                                                                                                          1. Adjective to Adverb
                                                                                                                                                          2. Semantic Changes
                                                                                                                                                            1. Meaning Extension
                                                                                                                                                              1. Meaning Restriction
                                                                                                                                                                1. Metaphorical Extension
                                                                                                                                                                2. Productivity of Derivational Processes
                                                                                                                                                                  1. Productive Affixes
                                                                                                                                                                    1. Semi-productive Affixes
                                                                                                                                                                      1. Unproductive Affixes
                                                                                                                                                                    2. Distinguishing Criteria
                                                                                                                                                                      1. Semantic Criteria
                                                                                                                                                                        1. Syntactic Criteria
                                                                                                                                                                          1. Phonological Criteria
                                                                                                                                                                            1. Positional Criteria
                                                                                                                                                                          2. Word Formation Processes
                                                                                                                                                                            1. Affixation
                                                                                                                                                                              1. Prefixation
                                                                                                                                                                                1. Definition and Properties
                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Semantic Types
                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Productivity Patterns
                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Suffixation
                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Definition and Properties
                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Category-Changing Suffixes
                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Category-Preserving Suffixes
                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Infixation
                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Definition and Cross-Linguistic Examples
                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Positional Constraints
                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Circumfixation
                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Definition and Examples
                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Discontinuous Morphology
                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Compounding
                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Definition and Properties
                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Compound Types by Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Endocentric Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Exocentric Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Copulative Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Appositional Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Compound Types by Relation
                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Subordinate Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Coordinate Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Headedness in Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Stress Patterns in Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Semantic Relations in Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Conversion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Definition and Properties
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Types of Conversion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Noun to Verb
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Verb to Noun
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Adjective to Verb
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Partial Conversion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              3. Clipping
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Definition and Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Types of Clipping
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Back Clipping
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Fore Clipping
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Middle Clipping
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Complex Clipping
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Phonological Constraints
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          3. Blending
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Definition and Process
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Types of Blends
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Phonological Patterns
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Semantic Composition
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Back-formation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Definition and Process
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Historical Examples
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Productivity Patterns
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Acronyms and Initialisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Acronyms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Definition and Properties
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Pronunciation Patterns
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Initialisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Definition and Properties
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Alphabetisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Hybrid Forms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  3. Reduplication
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Full Reduplication
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Complete Copying
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Semantic Functions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Partial Reduplication
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Syllable Reduplication
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Segment Reduplication
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Template-Based Reduplication
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Functions of Reduplication
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Intensification
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Pluralization
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Aspect Marking
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Other Word Formation Processes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Onomatopoeia
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Borrowing and Adaptation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Coinage
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Morphological Analysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Hierarchical Structure of Words
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Binary Branching
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Morpheme Order Constraints
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Scope Relations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Tree Diagrams for Word Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Drawing Morphological Trees
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Interpreting Tree Structures
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Bracketing Notation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Ambiguity in Word Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Structural Ambiguity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Multiple Parsing Possibilities
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Disambiguation Strategies
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Morphological Parsing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Segmentation Procedures
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Identification of Morphemes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Analysis of Complex Forms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Morphological Typology
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Isolating Languages
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Characteristics and Properties
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Examples and Case Studies
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Morpheme-to-Word Ratio
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Agglutinative Languages
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Characteristics and Properties
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Morpheme Boundaries
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Examples and Case Studies
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Fusional Languages
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Characteristics and Properties
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Cumulative Exponence
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Examples and Case Studies
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Polysynthetic Languages
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Characteristics and Properties
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Incorporation Processes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Examples and Case Studies
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Mixed Types and Continua
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Measuring Morphological Complexity

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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        3. Syntax: The Structure of Sentences