Medicinal Plants

7.

Modern Drug Discovery from Plants

7.1.

Historical Perspective

7.1.1.

Plant-Derived Pharmaceuticals

7.1.1.1.

Early Discoveries

7.1.1.2.

Timeline of Development

7.1.1.3.

Success Stories

7.1.2.

Evolution of Drug Discovery

7.1.2.1.

Traditional to Modern Methods

7.1.2.2.

Technological Advances

7.1.2.3.

Changing Paradigms

7.2.

The Role of Pharmacognosy

7.2.1.

Natural Product Libraries

7.2.1.1.

Collection Strategies

7.2.1.2.

Storage and Maintenance

7.2.1.3.

Database Management

7.2.2.

Screening Programs

7.2.2.1.

Random Screening

7.2.2.2.

Targeted Screening

7.2.2.3.

High-Throughput Methods

7.2.3.

Historical Contributions

7.2.3.1.

Major Discoveries

7.2.3.2.

Impact on Medicine

7.2.3.3.

Lessons Learned

7.3.

Ethnobotanical Approaches

7.3.1.

Traditional Use as Guide

7.3.1.1.

Literature Surveys

7.3.1.2.

7.3.1.3.

Indigenous Knowledge

7.3.2.

Ethnopharmacological Studies

7.3.2.1.

7.3.2.2.

Data Collection

7.3.2.3.

Validation Processes

7.3.3.

Success Stories

7.3.3.1.

Aspirin from Willow

7.3.3.2.

Digitalis from Foxglove

7.3.3.3.

Artemisinin from Sweet Wormwood

7.4.

Screening for Bioactivity

7.4.1.

Assay Development

7.4.1.1.

Target Selection

7.4.1.2.

Assay Validation

7.4.1.3.

Quality Control

7.4.2.

High-Throughput Screening

7.4.2.1.

Automation Systems

7.4.2.2.

Robotics Applications

7.4.2.3.

Data Management

7.4.3.

7.4.3.1.

Cell-Based Assays

7.4.3.2.

7.4.3.3.

Receptor Binding Assays

7.4.3.4.

Whole Animal Studies

7.4.4.

Hit Identification

7.4.4.1.

Screening Results Analysis

7.4.4.2.

False Positive Elimination

7.4.4.3.

Hit Confirmation

7.5.

Bioassay-Guided Fractionation

7.5.1.

Extraction Strategies

7.5.1.1.

Solvent Selection

7.5.1.2.

Sequential Extraction

7.5.1.3.

Supercritical Fluid Extraction

7.5.2.

Fractionation Techniques

7.5.2.1.

Column Chromatography

7.5.2.2.

Liquid-Liquid Partitioning

7.5.2.3.

Solid Phase Extraction

7.5.3.

Activity Tracking

7.5.3.1.

Parallel Bioassays

7.5.3.2.

Activity Correlation

7.5.3.3.

Potency Assessment

7.5.4.

Stepwise Isolation

7.5.4.1.

Purification Strategies

7.5.4.2.

Yield Optimization

7.5.4.3.

Purity Assessment

7.6.

Isolation and Structure Elucidation

7.6.1.

Chromatographic Techniques

7.6.1.1.

High-Performance Liquid Chromatography

7.6.1.2.

Gas Chromatography

7.6.1.3.

Preparative Chromatography

7.6.2.

Spectroscopic Methods

7.6.2.1.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

7.6.2.2.

Mass Spectrometry

7.6.2.3.

Infrared Spectroscopy

7.6.2.4.

Ultraviolet-Visible Spectroscopy

7.6.3.

Structure Determination

7.6.3.1.

2D NMR Techniques

7.6.3.2.

X-Ray Crystallography

7.6.3.3.

Computer-Assisted Structure Elucidation

7.6.4.

Stereochemistry

7.6.4.1.

7.6.4.2.

Optical Activity

7.6.4.3.

Absolute Configuration

7.7.

Lead Optimization

7.7.1.

Structure-Activity Relationships

7.7.1.1.

7.7.1.2.

Pharmacophore Identification

7.7.1.3.

Molecular Modeling

7.7.2.

Chemical Modification

7.7.2.1.

7.7.2.2.

Total Synthesis

7.7.2.3.

7.7.3.

ADMET Optimization

7.7.3.1.

Absorption Enhancement

7.7.3.2.

Distribution Improvement

7.7.3.3.

Metabolism Stability

7.7.3.4.

Toxicity Reduction

7.8.

Preclinical Development

7.8.1.

In Vitro Studies

7.8.1.1.

Cell Culture Systems

7.8.1.2.

7.8.1.3.

Mechanistic Studies

7.8.2.

7.8.2.1.

Species Selection

7.8.2.2.

7.8.2.3.

Pharmacokinetic Studies

7.8.3.

Toxicology Studies

7.8.3.1.

7.8.3.2.

Chronic Toxicity

7.8.3.3.

Reproductive Toxicity

7.8.3.4.

7.8.4.

Formulation Development

7.8.4.1.

7.8.4.2.

Stability Studies

7.8.4.3.

Bioavailability Enhancement

7.9.

Clinical Development

7.9.1.

7.9.1.1.

Safety Assessment

7.9.1.2.

Dose Escalation

7.9.1.3.

Pharmacokinetics

7.9.1.4.

Maximum Tolerated Dose

7.9.2.

Phase II Trials

7.9.2.1.

Efficacy Evaluation

7.9.2.2.

Dose-Response Studies

7.9.2.3.

Patient Population Selection

7.9.2.4.

Biomarker Development

7.9.3.

Phase III Trials

7.9.3.1.

Large-Scale Testing

7.9.3.2.

Comparative Effectiveness

7.9.3.3.

Statistical Power

7.9.3.4.

Regulatory Requirements

7.9.4.

Phase IV Studies

7.9.4.1.

Post-Marketing Surveillance

7.9.4.2.

Long-Term Safety

7.9.4.3.

Real-World Evidence

7.9.4.4.

Risk Management

7.10.

Notable Plant-Derived Pharmaceuticals

7.10.1.

7.10.1.1.

Willow Bark Origins

7.10.1.2.

Salicin to Aspirin

7.10.1.3.

Mechanism of Action

7.10.1.4.

Clinical Applications

7.10.2.

Digitalis Glycosides

7.10.2.1.

Foxglove Source

7.10.2.2.

Digoxin and Digitoxin

7.10.2.3.

Cardiac Applications

7.10.2.4.

Therapeutic Monitoring

7.10.3.

Paclitaxel (Taxol)

7.10.3.1.

Pacific Yew Source

7.10.3.2.

Mechanism of Action

7.10.3.3.

Cancer Therapy Applications

7.10.3.4.

Supply Chain Challenges

7.10.4.

7.10.4.1.

Sweet Wormwood Source

7.10.4.2.

Antimalarial Activity

7.10.4.3.

Combination Therapies

7.10.4.4.

Resistance Issues

7.10.5.

Vinca Alkaloids

7.10.5.1.

Madagascar Periwinkle Source

7.10.5.2.

Vincristine and Vinblastine

7.10.5.3.

Chemotherapy Applications

7.10.5.4.

Mechanism of Action

7.10.6.

Morphine and Codeine

7.10.6.1.

Opium Poppy Source

7.10.6.2.

Pain Management

7.10.6.3.

Addiction Concerns

7.10.6.4.

Synthetic Derivatives

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8. Cultivation and Conservation