Medicinal Plants

  1. Pharmacology of Medicinal Plants
    1. Pharmacokinetics
      1. Absorption
        1. Routes of Absorption
          1. Gastrointestinal Tract
            1. Respiratory System
              1. Skin and Mucous Membranes
              2. Factors Affecting Absorption
                1. Molecular Size
                  1. Lipophilicity
                    1. pH and Ionization
                      1. Blood Flow
                        1. Surface Area
                        2. Bioavailability
                          1. Absolute Bioavailability
                            1. Relative Bioavailability
                              1. Factors Influencing Bioavailability
                            2. Distribution
                              1. Blood-Brain Barrier
                                1. Selective Permeability
                                  1. CNS-Active Compounds
                                  2. Tissue Distribution
                                    1. Protein Binding
                                      1. Lipid Solubility
                                        1. Tissue Affinity
                                        2. Volume of Distribution
                                          1. Calculation Methods
                                            1. Clinical Significance
                                          2. Metabolism
                                            1. Phase I Reactions
                                              1. Oxidation
                                                1. Reduction
                                                  1. Hydrolysis
                                                  2. Phase II Reactions
                                                    1. Conjugation Reactions
                                                      1. Glucuronidation
                                                        1. Sulfation
                                                        2. Biotransformation Pathways
                                                          1. Hepatic Metabolism
                                                            1. Extrahepatic Metabolism
                                                              1. Species Differences
                                                              2. Enzyme Systems
                                                                1. Cytochrome P450
                                                                  1. Conjugating Enzymes
                                                                    1. Induction and Inhibition
                                                                  2. Excretion
                                                                    1. Renal Elimination
                                                                      1. Glomerular Filtration
                                                                        1. Tubular Secretion
                                                                          1. Tubular Reabsorption
                                                                          2. Hepatic Elimination
                                                                            1. Biliary Excretion
                                                                              1. Enterohepatic Circulation
                                                                              2. Other Routes
                                                                                1. Pulmonary Excretion
                                                                                  1. Skin Excretion
                                                                                  2. Half-Life and Clearance
                                                                                    1. Elimination Half-Life
                                                                                      1. Total Body Clearance
                                                                                        1. Clinical Implications
                                                                                    2. Pharmacodynamics
                                                                                      1. Mechanisms of Action
                                                                                        1. Cellular Targets
                                                                                          1. Membrane Receptors
                                                                                            1. Intracellular Receptors
                                                                                              1. Enzymes
                                                                                                1. Ion Channels
                                                                                                2. Signal Transduction
                                                                                                  1. Second Messenger Systems
                                                                                                    1. Gene Expression
                                                                                                      1. Protein Synthesis
                                                                                                    2. Receptor Interactions
                                                                                                      1. Receptor Types
                                                                                                        1. G-Protein Coupled Receptors
                                                                                                          1. Ion Channel Receptors
                                                                                                            1. Enzyme-Linked Receptors
                                                                                                            2. Agonists and Antagonists
                                                                                                              1. Full Agonists
                                                                                                                1. Partial Agonists
                                                                                                                  1. Competitive Antagonists
                                                                                                                    1. Non-Competitive Antagonists
                                                                                                                    2. Receptor Binding
                                                                                                                      1. Affinity
                                                                                                                        1. Selectivity
                                                                                                                          1. Binding Kinetics
                                                                                                                        2. Enzyme Interactions
                                                                                                                          1. Enzyme Inhibition
                                                                                                                            1. Competitive Inhibition
                                                                                                                              1. Non-Competitive Inhibition
                                                                                                                                1. Irreversible Inhibition
                                                                                                                                2. Enzyme Induction
                                                                                                                                  1. Transcriptional Regulation
                                                                                                                                    1. Post-Translational Modification
                                                                                                                                    2. Specific Enzyme Targets
                                                                                                                                      1. Cyclooxygenase
                                                                                                                                        1. Acetylcholinesterase
                                                                                                                                          1. Monoamine Oxidase
                                                                                                                                        2. Dose-Response Relationships
                                                                                                                                          1. Dose-Response Curves
                                                                                                                                            1. Linear Relationships
                                                                                                                                              1. Sigmoidal Curves
                                                                                                                                                1. Threshold Effects
                                                                                                                                                2. Potency and Efficacy
                                                                                                                                                  1. ED50 Values
                                                                                                                                                    1. Maximum Response
                                                                                                                                                      1. Therapeutic Window
                                                                                                                                                    2. Drug Interactions
                                                                                                                                                      1. Synergistic Effects
                                                                                                                                                        1. Additive Effects
                                                                                                                                                          1. Potentiation
                                                                                                                                                            1. Examples in Herbal Medicine
                                                                                                                                                            2. Antagonistic Effects
                                                                                                                                                              1. Competitive Antagonism
                                                                                                                                                                1. Physiological Antagonism
                                                                                                                                                                  1. Chemical Antagonism
                                                                                                                                                                  2. Polyherbal Formulations
                                                                                                                                                                    1. Traditional Combinations
                                                                                                                                                                      1. Scientific Rationale
                                                                                                                                                                        1. Quality Control Challenges
                                                                                                                                                                    2. Toxicology of Medicinal Plants
                                                                                                                                                                      1. Types of Toxicity
                                                                                                                                                                        1. Acute Toxicity
                                                                                                                                                                          1. Single Dose Effects
                                                                                                                                                                            1. LD50 Values
                                                                                                                                                                              1. Immediate Symptoms
                                                                                                                                                                              2. Chronic Toxicity
                                                                                                                                                                                1. Long-Term Exposure
                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Cumulative Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Organ-Specific Toxicity
                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Subacute Toxicity
                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Repeated Dose Studies
                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Intermediate Duration
                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Dose-Response Relationships
                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Threshold Concepts
                                                                                                                                                                                          1. No Observable Effect Level (NOEL)
                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Lowest Observable Effect Level (LOEL)
                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Safety Margins
                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Therapeutic Index
                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Margin of Safety
                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Individual Susceptibility
                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Genetic Polymorphisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Disease States
                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Herb-Drug Interactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Pharmacokinetic Interactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Absorption Interference
                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Metabolism Modulation
                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Excretion Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Pharmacodynamic Interactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Additive Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Antagonistic Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Receptor Competition
                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Cytochrome P450 Modulation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Enzyme Induction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Enzyme Inhibition
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Clinical Consequences
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Common Interactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Warfarin and Herbal Products
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Digoxin Interactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Antidepressant Interactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Herb-Herb Interactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Additive Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Similar Mechanisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Enhanced Toxicity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Antagonistic Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Opposing Actions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Reduced Efficacy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Complex Interactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Multiple Pathways
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Unpredictable Outcomes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Special Populations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Pregnancy and Lactation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Teratogenic Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Transfer to Breast Milk
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Safety Categories
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Pediatric Considerations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Developmental Differences
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Dosing Adjustments
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Safety Concerns
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Geriatric Considerations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Polypharmacy Issues
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Increased Sensitivity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Hepatic Impairment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Metabolism Changes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Accumulation Risk
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Renal Impairment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Excretion Limitations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Dose Adjustments
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Common Toxic Plants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Identification Features
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Morphological Characteristics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Distribution Patterns
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Toxic Principles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Chemical Classes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Mechanisms of Toxicity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Clinical Symptoms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Acute Presentations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Chronic Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Treatment Approaches
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Prevention Strategies
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Education Programs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Proper Identification
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Safe Handling Practices

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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              7. Modern Drug Discovery from Plants