Galactic and Extragalactic Astrophysics

4.

Galaxy Formation and Evolution

4.1.

Cosmological Framework

4.1.1.

The Lambda-CDM Model

4.1.1.1.

Dark Matter and Dark Energy

4.1.1.2.

Cosmological Parameters

4.1.1.3.

Concordance Model

4.1.2.

Primordial Density Fluctuations

4.1.2.1.

Power Spectrum of Fluctuations

4.1.2.2.

Cosmic Microwave Background Constraints

4.1.2.3.

Transfer Functions

4.1.3.

Hierarchical Structure Formation

4.1.3.1.

Bottom-up Assembly

4.1.3.2.

4.1.3.3.

Press-Schechter Formalism

4.2.

Formation of Dark Matter Halos

4.2.1.

Gravitational Collapse

4.2.1.1.

Spherical Collapse Model

4.2.1.2.

4.2.1.3.

Turnaround and Collapse

4.2.2.

Mergers and Accretion

4.2.2.1.

Major and Minor Mergers

4.2.2.2.

Smooth Accretion

4.2.2.3.

4.2.3.

Halo Mass Function

4.2.3.1.

Theoretical Predictions

4.2.3.2.

Observational Tests

4.2.4.

4.2.4.1.

Clustering Properties

4.2.4.2.

Mass Dependence

4.3.

Baryonic Physics in Galaxy Formation

4.3.1.

Gas Cooling and Accretion

4.3.1.1.

Radiative Cooling Processes

4.3.1.2.

Cold vs. Hot Mode Accretion

4.3.1.3.

Cooling Functions

4.3.2.

Star Formation and Feedback

4.3.2.1.

Star Formation Laws

4.3.2.2.

Supernova Feedback

4.3.2.2.1.

Energy Injection and Outflows

4.3.2.2.2.

Momentum vs. Energy Driving

4.3.2.3.

4.3.2.3.1.

Mass Loss and Enrichment

4.3.2.4.

4.3.2.4.1.

Quenching of Star Formation

4.3.2.4.2.

Mechanical and Radiative Modes

4.3.3.

Chemical Evolution and Enrichment

4.3.3.1.

Metal Production and Distribution

4.3.3.2.

Enrichment of the ISM and IGM

4.3.3.3.

4.3.4.

4.3.4.1.

Sources of Ionizing Radiation

4.3.4.2.

Impact on Galaxy Formation

4.4.

Galaxy Mergers and Interactions

4.4.1.

Tidal Forces and Stripping

4.4.1.1.

Tidal Tails and Bridges

4.4.1.2.

Gas and Stellar Stripping

4.4.1.3.

Tidal Disruption

4.4.2.

Merger Dynamics

4.4.2.1.

Dynamical Friction

4.4.2.2.

Merger Remnants

4.4.2.3.

Merger Timescales

4.4.3.

Starbursts Triggered by Mergers

4.4.3.1.

Enhanced Star Formation

4.4.3.2.

Observational Signatures

4.4.3.3.

Ultraluminous Infrared Galaxies

4.4.4.

Morphological Transformation

4.4.4.1.

Disk-to-Elliptical Evolution

4.4.4.2.

Formation of Shells and Loops

4.4.4.3.

Remnant Properties

4.5.

Secular Evolution

4.5.1.

Internal Processes Driving Change

4.5.1.1.

Angular Momentum Redistribution

4.5.1.2.

Gas Inflow and Outflow

4.5.2.

Bar Formation and Buckling

4.5.2.1.

Bar Instability

4.5.2.2.

Vertical Thickening

4.5.2.3.

Bar-driven Evolution

4.5.3.

Spiral Arm Dynamics

4.5.3.1.

Transient vs. Long-lived Arms

4.5.3.2.

Role in Star Formation

4.5.3.3.

4.5.4.

Disk Instabilities

4.5.4.1.

Gravitational Instabilities

4.5.4.2.

Toomre Criterion

4.6.

Observational Signatures of Evolution

4.6.1.

The Galaxy Main Sequence

4.6.1.1.

Star Formation Rate vs. Stellar Mass Relation

4.6.1.2.

Evolution with Redshift

4.6.1.3.

Scatter and Outliers

4.6.2.

The Color-Bimodality of Galaxies

4.6.2.1.

4.6.2.2.

4.6.2.3.

Green Valley Galaxies

4.6.3.

4.6.3.1.

Mass-dependent Evolution

4.6.3.2.

Archaeological Evidence

4.6.4.

High-Redshift Observations

4.6.4.1.

Lyman Break Galaxies

4.6.4.2.

Submillimeter Galaxies

4.6.4.3.

Galaxy Evolution Surveys

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5. Active Galactic Nuclei and Supermassive Black Holes