Energy Transition and Sustainability

Policy, Economics, and Governance

5.1.

International Frameworks

5.1.1.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

5.1.1.1.

Structure and Objectives

5.1.1.1.1.

Convention Principles

5.1.1.1.2.

Institutional Framework

5.1.1.1.3.

Reporting Requirements

5.1.1.2.

Conference of the Parties (COP)

5.1.1.2.1.

Annual Negotiations

5.1.1.2.2.

Decision-Making Process

5.1.1.2.3.

Key Outcomes

5.1.2.

The Kyoto Protocol

5.1.2.1.

Emissions Reduction Commitments

5.1.2.1.1.

Annex I Country Targets

5.1.2.1.2.

Commitment Periods

5.1.2.1.3.

Compliance Mechanisms

5.1.2.2.

Flexibility Mechanisms

5.1.2.2.1.

International Emissions Trading

5.1.2.2.2.

Clean Development Mechanism

5.1.2.2.3.

Joint Implementation

5.1.3.

The Paris Agreement

5.1.3.1.

Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)

5.1.3.1.1.

Voluntary Commitments

5.1.3.1.2.

Transparency Framework

5.1.3.1.3.

Enhancement Mechanisms

5.1.3.2.

Global Stocktake and Ratcheting Mechanism

5.1.3.2.1.

Five-Year Review Cycles

5.1.3.2.2.

Collective Progress Assessment

5.1.3.2.3.

5.1.3.3.

5.1.3.3.1.

5.1.3.3.2.

5.1.3.3.3.

5.1.4.

The UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

5.1.4.1.

Energy-Related Goals

5.1.4.1.1.

SDG 7: Affordable and Clean Energy

5.1.4.1.2.

Energy Access Targets

5.1.4.1.3.

Renewable Energy Targets

5.1.4.2.

Interlinkages with Other SDGs

5.1.4.2.1.

Climate Action (SDG 13)

5.1.4.2.2.

Sustainable Cities (SDG 11)

5.1.4.2.3.

Responsible Consumption (SDG 12)

5.1.5.

Other International Initiatives

5.1.5.1.

International Energy Agency (IEA)

5.1.5.2.

International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA)

5.1.5.3.

Mission Innovation

5.1.5.4.

Breakthrough Energy Coalition

5.2.

National and Sub-national Policies

5.2.1.

Carbon Pricing Mechanisms

5.2.1.1.

Carbon Taxes

5.2.1.1.1.

Tax Design and Implementation

5.2.1.1.2.

Revenue Recycling Options

5.2.1.1.3.

Border Carbon Adjustments

5.2.1.2.

Emissions Trading Systems (ETS)

5.2.1.2.1.

Cap-and-Trade Design

5.2.1.2.2.

Allowance Allocation

5.2.1.2.3.

Price Management Mechanisms

5.2.1.2.4.

Linking Systems

5.2.1.3.

Hybrid Approaches

5.2.1.3.1.

Carbon Tax with ETS

5.2.1.3.2.

Sector-Specific Approaches

5.2.1.3.3.

Price Corridors

5.2.2.

Regulatory Standards

5.2.2.1.

Renewable Portfolio Standards (RPS)

5.2.2.1.1.

Renewable Energy Targets

5.2.2.1.2.

Compliance Mechanisms

5.2.2.1.3.

Renewable Energy Credits

5.2.2.2.

Energy Efficiency Performance Standards

5.2.2.2.1.

Appliance Standards

5.2.2.2.2.

Building Energy Codes

5.2.2.2.3.

Vehicle Fuel Economy Standards

5.2.2.3.

Emissions Performance Standards

5.2.2.3.1.

Power Plant Emissions Limits

5.2.2.3.2.

Industrial Emissions Standards

5.2.2.3.3.

Transportation Emissions Standards

5.2.3.

Financial Incentives

5.2.3.1.

Feed-in Tariffs (FiTs)

5.2.3.1.1.

Price Setting Mechanisms

5.2.3.1.2.

Contract Terms

5.2.3.1.3.

Grid Integration Requirements

5.2.3.2.

Tax Credits and Subsidies

5.2.3.2.1.

Investment Tax Credits

5.2.3.2.2.

Production Tax Credits

5.2.3.2.3.

Accelerated Depreciation

5.2.3.3.

Green Bonds and Sustainable Finance

5.2.3.3.1.

Green Bond Standards

5.2.3.3.2.

Sustainability-Linked Bonds

5.2.3.3.3.

Taxonomy Development

5.2.4.

Research and Development Support

5.2.4.1.

Public R&D Funding

5.2.4.2.

Technology Demonstration Programs

5.2.4.3.

Innovation Incentives

5.2.4.4.

Public-Private Partnerships

5.2.5.

Infrastructure Investment

5.2.5.1.

Grid Modernization Programs

5.2.5.2.

Charging Infrastructure Support

5.2.5.3.

Transmission Line Development

5.2.5.4.

Storage Deployment Incentives

5.3.

Economics of the Energy Transition

5.3.1.

Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE)

5.3.1.1.

5.3.1.1.1.

5.3.1.1.2.

5.3.1.1.3.

5.3.1.1.4.

5.3.1.2.

Comparison Across Technologies

5.3.1.2.1.

Renewable vs. Fossil Fuel Costs

5.3.1.2.2.

Technology Learning Curves

5.3.1.2.3.

Regional Variations

5.3.1.3.

Limitations and Alternatives

5.3.1.3.1.

System-Level Costs

5.3.1.3.2.

Value-Adjusted LCOE

5.3.1.3.3.

Levelized Cost of Storage

5.3.2.

Energy Return on Investment (EROI)

5.3.2.1.

Concept and Importance

5.3.2.1.1.

Energy Input Requirements

5.3.2.1.2.

Energy Output Calculations

5.3.2.1.3.

System Boundaries

5.3.2.2.

Trends for Different Energy Sources

5.3.2.2.1.

Fossil Fuel EROI Decline

5.3.2.2.2.

Renewable Energy EROI

5.3.2.2.3.

Nuclear Power EROI

5.3.3.

Valuing Externalities

5.3.3.1.

Social Cost of Carbon

5.3.3.1.1.

Damage Function Approaches

5.3.3.1.2.

Integrated Assessment Models

5.3.3.1.3.

Discount Rate Considerations

5.3.3.2.

Health and Environmental Costs

5.3.3.2.1.

Air Pollution Health Impacts

5.3.3.2.2.

Water Resource Impacts

5.3.3.2.3.

Land Use Impacts

5.3.3.3.

Co-Benefits of Clean Energy

5.3.3.3.1.

Health Co-Benefits

5.3.3.3.2.

Economic Development

5.3.3.3.3.

Energy Security Benefits

5.3.4.

Investment and Finance

5.3.4.1.

Public and Private Investment

5.3.4.1.1.

Government Investment Programs

5.3.4.1.2.

Private Sector Financing

5.3.4.1.3.

Blended Finance Mechanisms

5.3.4.2.

Risk Assessment and Management

5.3.4.2.1.

5.3.4.2.2.

5.3.4.2.3.

5.3.4.2.4.

5.3.4.3.

5.3.4.3.1.

5.3.4.3.2.

Sustainability-Linked Loans

5.3.4.3.3.

Carbon Credits

5.3.4.3.4.

Pay-for-Success Contracts

5.3.5.

Stranded Assets

5.3.5.1.

Fossil Fuel Infrastructure Risks

5.3.5.1.1.

Coal Plant Retirements

5.3.5.1.2.

Oil and Gas Asset Devaluation

5.3.5.1.3.

Pipeline and Refinery Risks

5.3.5.2.

Financial Implications

5.3.5.2.1.

Investor Losses

5.3.5.2.2.

Utility Financial Stress

5.3.5.2.3.

Pension Fund Exposure

5.3.5.3.

Transition Management

5.3.5.3.1.

Asset Retirement Planning

5.3.5.3.2.

Worker Transition Support

5.3.5.3.3.

Community Economic Development

5.4.

Geopolitics of Energy

5.4.1.

Shifting Alliances and Trade Routes

5.4.1.1.

Energy Exporters and Importers

5.4.1.1.1.

Traditional Oil and Gas Exporters

5.4.1.1.2.

Renewable Energy Leaders

5.4.1.1.3.

Technology Exporters

5.4.1.2.

New Trade Patterns

5.4.1.2.1.

Renewable Energy Equipment Trade

5.4.1.2.2.

Green Hydrogen Trade

5.4.1.2.3.

Critical Mineral Trade

5.4.1.3.

Energy Diplomacy

5.4.1.3.1.

Bilateral Energy Agreements

5.4.1.3.2.

Multilateral Cooperation

5.4.1.3.3.

Energy Security Partnerships

5.4.2.

Critical Minerals and Supply Chain Security

5.4.2.1.

Key Minerals for Clean Energy Technologies

5.4.2.1.1.

5.4.2.1.2.

5.4.2.1.3.

5.4.2.1.4.

5.4.2.1.5.

5.4.2.2.

Supply Risks and Diversification

5.4.2.2.1.

Geographic Concentration

5.4.2.2.2.

Political Stability Risks

5.4.2.2.3.

Supply Chain Vulnerabilities

5.4.2.3.

Resource Diplomacy

5.4.2.3.1.

Mineral Partnerships

5.4.2.3.2.

Strategic Reserves

5.4.2.3.3.

Recycling and Substitution

5.4.3.

Energy Independence vs. Interdependence

5.4.3.1.

National Security Considerations

5.4.3.1.1.

Energy Supply Security

5.4.3.1.2.

Critical Infrastructure Protection

5.4.3.1.3.

Economic Security

5.4.3.2.

Regional Cooperation

5.4.3.2.1.

Regional Energy Markets

5.4.3.2.2.

Grid Interconnections

5.4.3.2.3.

Technology Sharing

5.4.3.3.

Global Energy Governance

5.4.3.3.1.

International Energy Organizations

5.4.3.3.2.

Multilateral Agreements

5.4.3.3.3.

Dispute Resolution Mechanisms

4. Enabling Technologies and Infrastructure

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6. Social Dimensions and Sectoral Transitions