Conservation Biology

  1. Major Threats to Biodiversity
    1. Habitat Destruction and Fragmentation
      1. Causes of Habitat Loss
        1. Agricultural Expansion
          1. Cropland Conversion
            1. Livestock Grazing
              1. Aquaculture Development
              2. Deforestation
                1. Commercial Logging
                  1. Conversion to Plantations
                    1. Slash-and-Burn Agriculture
                    2. Urbanization and Development
                      1. Urban Sprawl
                        1. Infrastructure Expansion
                          1. Industrial Development
                          2. Mining and Extraction
                            1. Surface Mining
                              1. Oil and Gas Extraction
                                1. Quarrying
                              2. Habitat Fragmentation Effects
                                1. Patch Size Effects
                                  1. Edge Effects
                                    1. Microclimate Changes
                                      1. Increased Predation
                                        1. Invasive Species Penetration
                                        2. Isolation Effects
                                          1. Reduced Gene Flow
                                            1. Demographic Isolation
                                            2. Matrix Effects
                                              1. Permeability for Movement
                                                1. Hostile vs. Benign Matrix
                                              2. Landscape Connectivity
                                                1. Corridors and Stepping Stones
                                                  1. Barriers to Movement
                                                    1. Functional Connectivity
                                                  2. Overexploitation
                                                    1. Terrestrial Overexploitation
                                                      1. Overharvesting of Plants
                                                        1. Timber Extraction
                                                          1. Medicinal Plant Collection
                                                            1. Ornamental Plant Trade
                                                            2. Hunting and Poaching
                                                              1. Commercial Hunting
                                                                1. Subsistence Hunting
                                                                  1. Trophy Hunting
                                                                    1. Illegal Wildlife Trade
                                                                  2. Marine Overexploitation
                                                                    1. Overfishing
                                                                      1. Commercial Fisheries
                                                                        1. Artisanal Fisheries
                                                                        2. Destructive Fishing Practices
                                                                          1. Bottom Trawling
                                                                            1. Dynamite Fishing
                                                                              1. Cyanide Fishing
                                                                              2. Bycatch Issues
                                                                                1. Non-target Species Mortality
                                                                                  1. Mitigation Measures
                                                                                2. The Bushmeat Crisis
                                                                                  1. Drivers of Bushmeat Consumption
                                                                                    1. Impacts on Wildlife Populations
                                                                                      1. Sustainable Alternatives
                                                                                    2. Invasive Alien Species
                                                                                      1. Introduction Pathways
                                                                                        1. Intentional Introductions
                                                                                          1. Biological Control Agents
                                                                                            1. Ornamental Species
                                                                                              1. Agricultural Species
                                                                                              2. Accidental Introductions
                                                                                                1. Ballast Water
                                                                                                  1. Cargo Contamination
                                                                                                    1. Hitchhiking Species
                                                                                                    2. Escape from Captivity
                                                                                                    3. Invasion Process
                                                                                                      1. Introduction Stage
                                                                                                        1. Establishment Stage
                                                                                                          1. Spread Stage
                                                                                                            1. Impact Stage
                                                                                                            2. Characteristics of Successful Invaders
                                                                                                              1. High Reproductive Rate
                                                                                                                1. Broad Environmental Tolerance
                                                                                                                  1. Lack of Natural Enemies
                                                                                                                    1. Phenotypic Plasticity
                                                                                                                    2. Ecological and Economic Impacts
                                                                                                                      1. Competition with Native Species
                                                                                                                        1. Predation on Native Species
                                                                                                                          1. Hybridization
                                                                                                                            1. Disease Transmission
                                                                                                                              1. Ecosystem Process Alteration
                                                                                                                                1. Economic Costs
                                                                                                                                2. Management Strategies
                                                                                                                                  1. Prevention
                                                                                                                                    1. Early Detection and Rapid Response
                                                                                                                                      1. Eradication
                                                                                                                                        1. Control and Containment
                                                                                                                                          1. Biological Control
                                                                                                                                            1. Integrated Management
                                                                                                                                          2. Pollution
                                                                                                                                            1. Chemical Pollution
                                                                                                                                              1. Pesticides and Herbicides
                                                                                                                                                1. Acute and Chronic Effects
                                                                                                                                                  1. Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification
                                                                                                                                                    1. Endocrine Disruption
                                                                                                                                                    2. Heavy Metals
                                                                                                                                                      1. Mercury Contamination
                                                                                                                                                        1. Lead Contamination
                                                                                                                                                          1. Cadmium and Other Metals
                                                                                                                                                          2. Industrial Chemicals
                                                                                                                                                            1. Persistent Organic Pollutants
                                                                                                                                                              1. Pharmaceuticals in Environment
                                                                                                                                                              2. Nutrient Pollution
                                                                                                                                                                1. Eutrophication
                                                                                                                                                                  1. Algal Blooms
                                                                                                                                                                    1. Dead Zones
                                                                                                                                                                    2. Acid Deposition
                                                                                                                                                                      1. Causes and Sources
                                                                                                                                                                        1. Effects on Terrestrial Systems
                                                                                                                                                                          1. Effects on Aquatic Systems
                                                                                                                                                                        2. Physical Pollution
                                                                                                                                                                          1. Plastic Pollution
                                                                                                                                                                            1. Macroplastics
                                                                                                                                                                              1. Microplastics
                                                                                                                                                                                1. Marine Debris
                                                                                                                                                                                2. Light Pollution
                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Effects on Nocturnal Species
                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Disruption of Migration
                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Noise Pollution
                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Anthropogenic Noise
                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Effects on Communication
                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Behavioral Changes
                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Pollution Mitigation
                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Source Reduction
                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Treatment Technologies
                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Bioremediation
                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Policy and Regulation
                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Climate Change
                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Physical Climate Changes
                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Temperature Increases
                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Precipitation Pattern Changes
                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Sea Level Rise
                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Ocean Acidification
                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Extreme Weather Events
                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Biological Responses
                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Species Range Shifts
                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Latitudinal Shifts
                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Altitudinal Shifts
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Marine Range Shifts
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Phenological Changes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Timing of Life Events
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Mismatches in Interactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Evolutionary Responses
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Rapid Evolution
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Genetic Adaptation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Ecosystem-Level Impacts
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Coral Bleaching
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Forest Dieback
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Permafrost Thaw
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Wetland Changes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Synergistic Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Interactions with Other Threats
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Cumulative Impacts
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Feedback Loops
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Ecosystem-Based Adaptation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Assisted Migration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Climate Refugia
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Emerging Threats
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Infectious Diseases
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Pathogen Spillover
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Zoonotic Diseases
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Wildlife Disease Outbreaks
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Chytrid Fungus in Amphibians
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. White-Nose Syndrome in Bats
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Nanotechnology
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Nanoparticle Pollution
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Unknown Ecological Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Genetic Pollution
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Genetically Modified Organisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Gene Drive Technology

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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Understanding Biodiversity

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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            4. Population and Species Conservation