Coastal and Marine Ecosystems

4.

Open Ocean and Deep Sea Ecosystems

4.1.

Pelagic Zone Classification

4.1.1.

Epipelagic Zone

4.1.1.1.

Light Availability

4.1.1.1.1.

Photosynthetic Active Radiation

4.1.1.1.2.

Seasonal Light Variations

4.1.1.2.

Primary Production

4.1.1.2.1.

Phytoplankton Communities

4.1.1.2.2.

Productivity Patterns

4.1.1.3.

Major Organisms

4.1.1.3.1.

Surface Fish Communities

4.1.1.3.2.

4.1.1.3.3.

4.1.2.

Mesopelagic Zone

4.1.2.1.

Light Attenuation

4.1.2.1.1.

Twilight Conditions

4.1.2.1.2.

Bioluminescence Importance

4.1.2.2.

Vertical Migration

4.1.2.2.1.

Diel Vertical Migration

4.1.2.2.2.

Migration Triggers

4.1.2.3.

Adaptations to Low Light

4.1.2.3.1.

Enhanced Vision

4.1.2.3.2.

Bioluminescent Organs

4.1.2.3.3.

4.1.3.

Bathypelagic Zone

4.1.3.1.

Absence of Sunlight

4.1.3.1.1.

Complete Darkness

4.1.3.1.2.

Reliance on Bioluminescence

4.1.3.2.

Pressure and Temperature Conditions

4.1.3.2.1.

High Pressure Effects

4.1.3.2.2.

Cold Temperatures

4.1.3.3.

4.1.3.3.1.

Specialized Fish

4.1.3.3.2.

Gelatinous Organisms

4.1.3.3.3.

4.1.4.

Abyssopelagic Zone

4.1.4.1.

4.1.4.1.1.

Pressure Adaptations

4.1.4.1.2.

Sparse Food Resources

4.1.4.2.

Specialized Organisms

4.1.4.2.1.

4.1.4.2.2.

Invertebrate Communities

4.1.5.

Hadopelagic Zone

4.1.5.1.

Trench Environments

4.1.5.1.1.

Deepest Ocean Regions

4.1.5.1.2.

Unique Physical Conditions

4.1.5.2.

Unique Adaptations

4.1.5.2.1.

Extreme Pressure Tolerance

4.1.5.2.2.

Specialized Feeding

4.2.

Benthic Environments

4.2.1.

Characteristics of the Benthic Zone

4.2.1.1.

Seafloor Habitats

4.2.1.2.

4.2.1.3.

Food Availability

4.2.2.

4.2.2.1.

Sediment Composition

4.2.2.1.1.

Pelagic Sediments

4.2.2.1.1.1.

Foraminiferal Ooze

4.2.2.1.1.2.

Radiolarian Ooze

4.2.2.1.1.3.

4.2.2.1.2.

Terrigenous Sediments

4.2.2.1.2.1.

4.2.2.1.2.2.

Turbidite Deposits

4.2.2.1.3.

4.2.2.1.3.1.

Deep-Sea Clay Formation

4.2.2.1.3.2.

Manganese Nodules

4.2.2.2.

Benthic Organisms

4.2.2.2.1.

4.2.2.2.2.

4.2.2.2.3.

4.2.2.2.4.

Feeding Strategies

4.2.3.

Hydrothermal Vents

4.2.3.1.

Formation and Geology

4.2.3.1.1.

Volcanic Activity

4.2.3.1.2.

Mineral Precipitation

4.2.3.1.3.

Vent Field Dynamics

4.2.3.2.

Chemosynthesis as Energy Source

4.2.3.2.1.

Bacterial Primary Production

4.2.3.2.2.

Chemical Energy Utilization

4.2.3.2.3.

Symbiotic Relationships

4.2.3.3.

Unique Biological Communities

4.2.3.3.1.

4.2.3.3.1.1.

Giant Tube Worms

4.2.3.3.1.2.

Symbiotic Bacteria

4.2.3.3.2.

4.2.3.3.2.1.

Specialized Feeding

4.2.3.3.2.2.

Temperature Tolerance

4.2.3.3.3.

4.2.3.3.3.1.

Endemic Species

4.2.3.3.3.2.

Physiological Adaptations

4.2.4.

4.2.4.1.

Methane and Sulfide-Based Ecosystems

4.2.4.1.1.

Hydrocarbon Seepage

4.2.4.1.2.

Chemosynthetic Production

4.2.4.2.

Associated Fauna

4.2.4.2.1.

Clam Communities

4.2.4.2.2.

Tube Worm Colonies

4.2.4.2.3.

4.2.5.

Seamounts and Deep-Sea Corals

4.2.5.1.

Ecological Importance

4.2.5.1.1.

Biodiversity Hotspots

4.2.5.1.2.

Stepping Stones for Migration

4.2.5.2.

Biodiversity and Endemism

4.2.5.2.1.

High Species Richness

4.2.5.2.2.

Endemic Species

4.2.5.3.

Deep-Sea Coral Communities

4.2.5.3.1.

Cold-Water Corals

4.2.5.3.2.

4.2.5.3.3.

Associated Fauna

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5. Marine Life and Biodiversity