Astrophysics

4.

Planetary Science and Exoplanets

4.1.

Solar System Formation

4.1.1.

Nebular Hypothesis

4.1.1.1.

Solar Nebula Collapse

4.1.1.2.

Conservation of Angular Momentum

4.1.1.3.

Temperature Gradient

4.1.1.4.

Condensation Sequence

4.1.2.

Protoplanetary Disk Evolution

4.1.2.1.

4.1.2.1.1.

Surface Density Profile

4.1.2.1.2.

Temperature Profile

4.1.2.1.3.

Vertical Structure

4.1.2.2.

4.1.2.2.1.

Viscous Evolution

4.1.2.2.2.

Magnetorotational Instability

4.1.2.2.3.

Gravitational Instabilities

4.1.2.3.

4.1.2.3.1.

Photoevaporation

4.1.2.3.2.

4.1.2.3.3.

Planet Formation Effects

4.1.2.4.

Observational Evidence

4.1.2.4.1.

Infrared Excess

4.1.2.4.2.

4.1.2.4.3.

Spectroscopic Signatures

4.1.3.

Planet Formation Mechanisms

4.1.3.1.

Terrestrial Planet Formation

4.1.3.1.1.

Dust Coagulation

4.1.3.1.2.

Planetesimal Formation

4.1.3.1.3.

4.1.3.1.4.

Oligarchic Growth

4.1.3.1.5.

Late Heavy Bombardment

4.1.3.2.

Giant Planet Formation

4.1.3.2.1.

Core Accretion Model

4.1.3.2.1.1.

Solid Core Formation

4.1.3.2.1.2.

Gas Envelope Accretion

4.1.3.2.1.3.

Critical Core Mass

4.1.3.2.2.

Disk Instability Model

4.1.3.2.2.1.

Gravitational Instability

4.1.3.2.2.2.

Direct Collapse

4.1.3.3.

Planetary Migration

4.1.3.3.1.

Type I Migration

4.1.3.3.2.

Type II Migration

4.1.3.3.3.

Type III Migration

4.1.3.3.4.

Migration Traps

4.2.

Solar System Architecture

4.2.1.

Terrestrial Planets

4.2.1.1.

4.2.1.1.1.

Orbital Properties

4.2.1.1.2.

Physical Characteristics

4.2.1.1.3.

4.2.1.1.4.

Surface Features

4.2.1.2.

4.2.1.2.1.

Atmosphere and Greenhouse Effect

4.2.1.2.2.

Surface Conditions

4.2.1.2.3.

Volcanic Activity

4.2.1.3.

4.2.1.3.1.

Unique Properties

4.2.1.3.2.

Atmosphere and Climate

4.2.1.3.3.

4.2.1.3.4.

Plate Tectonics

4.2.1.4.

4.2.1.4.1.

Atmosphere and Climate History

4.2.1.4.2.

Surface Features

4.2.1.4.3.

4.2.1.4.4.

Potential for Life

4.2.2.

4.2.2.1.

4.2.2.1.1.

Atmospheric Structure

4.2.2.1.2.

4.2.2.1.3.

4.2.2.1.4.

4.2.2.1.5.

4.2.2.2.

4.2.2.2.1.

4.2.2.2.2.

Atmospheric Features

4.2.2.2.3.

4.2.2.2.4.

4.2.2.3.

4.2.2.3.1.

Tilted Rotation Axis

4.2.2.3.2.

Atmosphere and Weather

4.2.2.3.3.

4.2.2.3.4.

4.2.2.4.

4.2.2.4.1.

Atmospheric Dynamics

4.2.2.4.2.

Great Dark Spot

4.2.2.4.3.

4.2.3.

4.2.3.1.

4.2.3.1.1.

Main Belt Asteroids

4.2.3.1.2.

Asteroid Families

4.2.3.1.3.

Trojan Asteroids

4.2.3.1.4.

Near-Earth Asteroids

4.2.3.2.

4.2.3.2.1.

Kuiper Belt Objects

4.2.3.2.2.

4.2.3.2.3.

4.2.3.3.

4.2.3.3.1.

Structure and Composition

4.2.3.3.2.

Comet Reservoir

4.2.3.4.

4.2.3.4.1.

Comet Structure

4.2.3.4.2.

Orbital Classifications

4.2.3.4.3.

Outgassing and Tails

4.2.3.4.4.

4.2.4.

Planetary Moons

4.2.4.1.

Formation Mechanisms

4.2.4.2.

4.2.4.3.

Orbital Resonances

4.2.4.4.

Geological Activity

4.2.4.5.

Potential Habitability

4.3.

Exoplanet Detection and Characterization

4.3.1.

Detection Methods

4.3.1.1.

Radial Velocity Method

4.3.1.1.1.

Doppler Spectroscopy

4.3.1.1.2.

Stellar Reflex Motion

4.3.1.1.3.

Limitations and Biases

4.3.1.1.4.

Precision Requirements

4.3.1.2.

Transit Photometry

4.3.1.2.1.

Transit Light Curves

4.3.1.2.2.

Transit Depth and Duration

4.3.1.2.3.

False Positives

4.3.1.2.4.

Follow-up Observations

4.3.1.3.

Gravitational Microlensing

4.3.1.3.1.

Lensing Geometry

4.3.1.3.2.

Light Curve Analysis

4.3.1.3.3.

Sensitivity to Distant Planets

4.3.1.3.4.

Statistical Studies

4.3.1.4.

4.3.1.4.1.

Coronagraphy Techniques

4.3.1.4.2.

Adaptive Optics

4.3.1.4.3.

Speckle Suppression

4.3.1.4.4.

Young, Hot Planets

4.3.1.5.

4.3.1.5.1.

Stellar Position Measurements

4.3.1.5.2.

Space-based Missions

4.3.1.5.3.

Complementary to Other Methods

4.3.1.6.

4.3.1.6.1.

4.3.1.6.2.

Transit Timing Variations

4.3.1.6.3.

Eclipse Timing Variations

4.3.2.

Exoplanet Surveys

4.3.2.1.

Ground-based Surveys

4.3.2.2.

Space-based Missions

4.3.2.2.1.

4.3.2.2.2.

4.3.2.2.3.

Future Missions

4.3.2.3.

Statistical Results

4.3.2.3.1.

Planet Occurrence Rates

4.3.2.3.2.

Period and Radius Distributions

4.3.3.

Exoplanet Characterization

4.3.3.1.

Mass and Radius Determination

4.3.3.2.

Density and Composition

4.3.3.3.

Atmospheric Studies

4.3.3.3.1.

Transmission Spectroscopy

4.3.3.3.2.

Emission Spectroscopy

4.3.3.3.3.

4.3.3.4.

Orbital Properties

4.3.3.4.1.

4.3.3.4.2.

4.3.3.4.3.

Spin-Orbit Alignment

4.4.

Exoplanet Demographics and Diversity

4.4.1.

4.4.1.1.

4.4.1.1.1.

Formation and Migration

4.4.1.1.2.

Atmospheric Properties

4.4.1.1.3.

4.4.1.2.

Super-Earths and Mini-Neptunes

4.4.1.2.1.

Size and Mass Range

4.4.1.2.2.

Composition Diversity

4.4.1.2.3.

Atmospheric Retention

4.4.1.3.

Earth-sized Planets

4.4.1.3.1.

Rocky Planet Formation

4.4.1.3.2.

Habitability Potential

4.4.1.4.

Circumbinary Planets

4.4.1.4.1.

Formation Challenges

4.4.1.4.2.

Orbital Stability

4.4.2.

System Architectures

4.4.2.1.

Single vs. Multiple Planet Systems

4.4.2.2.

Orbital Spacing and Resonances

4.4.2.3.

System Dynamics

4.4.2.4.

Comparison with Solar System

4.4.3.

Host Star Properties

4.4.3.1.

Stellar Mass Effects

4.4.3.2.

Metallicity Correlations

4.4.3.3.

Age and Evolution Effects

4.4.3.4.

Binary Star Systems

4.5.

Habitability and Astrobiology

4.5.1.

Habitable Zone Concept

4.5.1.1.

Definition and Boundaries

4.5.1.2.

Stellar Type Dependence

4.5.1.3.

Atmospheric Effects

4.5.1.4.

Tidal Locking Considerations

4.5.2.

Planetary Habitability Factors

4.5.2.1.

Atmospheric Composition

4.5.2.2.

Surface Temperature

4.5.2.3.

Liquid Water Availability

4.5.2.4.

Magnetic Field Protection

4.5.2.5.

Geological Activity

4.5.3.

4.5.3.1.

Atmospheric Biomarkers

4.5.3.1.1.

Oxygen and Ozone

4.5.3.1.2.

4.5.3.1.3.

4.5.3.1.4.

4.5.3.2.

Surface Biosignatures

4.5.3.3.

Temporal Variability

4.5.4.

Search for Life

4.5.4.1.

SETI Approaches

4.5.4.2.

Technosignatures

4.5.4.3.

Future Observational Capabilities

4.5.4.4.

Astrobiology Missions

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