Applications of Stable and Radioactive Isotopes

The unique properties of isotopes—either the predictable decay of radioactive isotopes or the subtle mass differences of stable isotopes—enable a vast range of applications across numerous scientific fields. Radioactive isotopes, or radioisotopes, are fundamental to techniques like radiometric dating (e.g., carbon-14) for determining the age of artifacts, medical imaging (e.g., PET scans) and cancer therapy, and as tracers in industrial and agricultural processes. Meanwhile, stable isotopes serve as powerful, non-destructive probes; their varying ratios are analyzed to reconstruct past climates from ice cores, trace environmental pollutants, unravel complex metabolic pathways in biochemistry, and determine the diet and geographic origin of archaeological and food samples.

1. Fundamentals of Isotopes
   1. Atomic Structure and Isotopes
      1. Structure of the Atom
         1. Protons
         2. Neutrons
         3. Electrons
         4. Nucleus
         5. Electron Cloud
      2. Definition of an Isotope
         1. Isotopes of a Single Element
         2. Mass Variation with Same Atomic Number
         3. Examples of Common Isotopes
      3. Atomic Number vs. Mass Number
         1. Atomic Number (Z)
         2. Mass Number (A)
         3. Calculating Neutron Number
      4. Notation of Isotopes
         1. Standard Isotopic Notation
         2. Symbolic Representation
         3. Hyphen Notation
   2. Categories of Isotopes
      1. Stable Isotopes
         1. Definition and Characteristics
         2. Nuclear Stability Factors
         3. Examples of Stable Isotopes
      2. Radioactive Isotopes (Radioisotopes)
         1. Definition and Characteristics
         2. Nuclear Instability
         3. Examples of Radioactive Isotopes
   3. Principles of Isotopic Variation and Application
      1. Isotopic Abundance
         1. Natural Abundance of Isotopes
         2. Measurement and Reporting of Abundance
         3. Isotope Ratio Notation
      2. Isotope Fractionation (for Stable Isotopes)
         1. Physical Fractionation Processes
         2. Chemical Fractionation Processes
         3. Biological Fractionation Processes
         4. Kinetic vs. Equilibrium Fractionation
      3. Radioactive Decay (for Radioisotopes)
         1. Nature of Radioactive Decay
         2. Decay Series and Chains
         3. Alpha Decay
            1. Mechanism of Alpha Emission
            2. Energy and Penetration Characteristics
            3. Alpha Particle Properties
         4. Beta Decay
            1. Beta Minus Decay
            2. Beta Plus Decay (Positron Emission)
            3. Electron Capture
            4. Neutrino Emission
         5. Gamma Emission
            1. Nature of Gamma Rays
            2. Accompanying Other Decay Types
            3. Internal Conversion
         6. Half-Life Concept
            1. Definition and Calculation
            2. Decay Curves and Exponential Decay
            3. Activity and Decay Rate
            4. Applications of Half-Life