Transportation Geography

3.

Transportation Modes and Systems

3.1.

Land Transportation

3.1.1.

Road Transportation

3.1.1.1.

3.1.1.1.1.

Roads and Highways

3.1.1.1.1.1.

Road Classifications

3.1.1.1.1.1.1.

Interstate Highways

3.1.1.1.1.1.2.

3.1.1.1.1.1.3.

Collector Roads

3.1.1.1.1.1.4.

3.1.1.1.1.2.

Design Standards

3.1.1.1.1.2.1.

Geometric Design

3.1.1.1.1.2.2.

3.1.1.1.1.2.3.

Safety Features

3.1.1.1.1.3.

Maintenance and Upgrading

3.1.1.1.1.3.1.

Preventive Maintenance

3.1.1.1.1.3.2.

Rehabilitation Strategies

3.1.1.1.1.3.3.

Capacity Expansion

3.1.1.1.2.

Bridges and Tunnels

3.1.1.1.2.1.

Bridge Types and Design

3.1.1.1.2.2.

Tunnel Construction Methods

3.1.1.1.2.3.

Maintenance Requirements

3.1.1.1.3.

Traffic Control Systems

3.1.1.1.3.1.

3.1.1.1.3.2.

Sign and Marking Standards

3.1.1.1.3.3.

Intelligent Transportation Systems

3.1.1.2.

3.1.1.2.1.

Passenger Vehicles

3.1.1.2.1.1.

Private Automobiles

3.1.1.2.1.2.

Motorcycles and Scooters

3.1.1.2.1.3.

Recreational Vehicles

3.1.1.2.2.

Freight Vehicles

3.1.1.2.2.1.

Light Commercial Vehicles

3.1.1.2.2.2.

3.1.1.2.2.3.

Specialized Freight Vehicles

3.1.1.2.3.

Public Transit Vehicles

3.1.1.2.3.1.

3.1.1.2.3.2.

Bus Rapid Transit

3.1.1.2.3.3.

Paratransit Vehicles

3.1.1.3.

Advantages and Disadvantages

3.1.1.3.1.

Flexibility and Accessibility

3.1.1.3.1.1.

Door-to-Door Service

3.1.1.3.1.2.

Route Flexibility

3.1.1.3.1.3.

Scheduling Freedom

3.1.1.3.2.

Congestion and Environmental Impact

3.1.1.3.2.1.

Traffic Congestion Costs

3.1.1.3.2.2.

3.1.1.3.2.3.

Noise Pollution

3.1.1.3.2.4.

Land Use Impacts

3.1.2.

Rail Transportation

3.1.2.1.

3.1.2.1.1.

Tracks and Right-of-Way

3.1.2.1.1.1.

Track Types and Gauges

3.1.2.1.1.1.1.

3.1.2.1.1.1.2.

3.1.2.1.1.1.3.

3.1.2.1.1.2.

Track Components

3.1.2.1.1.2.1.

3.1.2.1.1.2.2.

Ballast and Subgrade

3.1.2.1.1.2.3.

Signaling Systems

3.1.2.1.2.

Stations and Terminals

3.1.2.1.2.1.

Station Functions

3.1.2.1.2.1.1.

Passenger Services

3.1.2.1.2.1.2.

Freight Handling

3.1.2.1.2.1.3.

Intermodal Connections

3.1.2.1.2.2.

3.1.2.1.2.2.1.

Platform Configuration

3.1.2.1.2.2.2.

Accessibility Features

3.1.2.1.2.2.3.

Commercial Integration

3.1.2.1.3.

Yards and Maintenance Facilities

3.1.2.1.3.1.

Classification Yards

3.1.2.1.3.2.

Maintenance Shops

3.1.2.1.3.3.

Storage Facilities

3.1.2.2.

3.1.2.2.1.

3.1.2.2.1.1.

3.1.2.2.1.1.1.

Suburban Services

3.1.2.2.1.1.2.

Regional Networks

3.1.2.2.1.1.3.

Integration with Urban Transit

3.1.2.2.1.2.

3.1.2.2.1.2.1.

Conventional Rail

3.1.2.2.1.2.2.

High-Speed Rail

3.1.2.2.1.2.3.

Overnight Services

3.1.2.2.1.3.

Urban Rail Transit

3.1.2.2.1.3.1.

Heavy Rail Systems

3.1.2.2.1.3.2.

Light Rail Systems

3.1.2.2.1.3.3.

Monorail Systems

3.1.2.2.2.

3.1.2.2.2.1.

Unit Train Operations

3.1.2.2.2.2.

Intermodal Services

3.1.2.2.2.3.

Specialized Freight Services

3.1.2.2.2.3.1.

Bulk Commodities

3.1.2.2.2.3.2.

Automotive Transport

3.1.2.2.2.3.3.

Hazardous Materials

3.1.2.3.

Advantages and Disadvantages

3.1.2.3.1.

Energy Efficiency

3.1.2.3.1.1.

Fuel Efficiency Benefits

3.1.2.3.1.2.

Environmental Advantages

3.1.2.3.1.3.

Capacity Benefits

3.1.2.3.2.

Fixed Routes and Scheduling

3.1.2.3.2.1.

Limited Flexibility

3.1.2.3.2.2.

Schedule Dependence

3.1.2.3.2.3.

Infrastructure Requirements

3.2.

Water Transportation

3.2.1.

Maritime Shipping

3.2.1.1.

Routes and Networks

3.2.1.1.1.

Major Sea Lanes

3.2.1.1.1.1.

Trans-Pacific Routes

3.2.1.1.1.2.

Trans-Atlantic Routes

3.2.1.1.1.3.

Asia-Europe Routes

3.2.1.1.2.

Strategic Chokepoints

3.2.1.1.2.1.

3.2.1.1.2.2.

3.2.1.1.2.3.

Strait of Malacca

3.2.1.1.2.4.

Strait of Hormuz

3.2.1.1.3.

Seasonal Route Variations

3.2.1.1.3.1.

Arctic Shipping Routes

3.2.1.1.3.2.

Weather-Dependent Routes

3.2.1.1.3.3.

Ice-Free Periods

3.2.1.2.

Ports and Terminals

3.2.1.2.1.

3.2.1.2.1.1.

3.2.1.2.1.2.

Storage and Warehousing

3.2.1.2.1.3.

Value-Added Services

3.2.1.2.2.

3.2.1.2.2.1.

Container Ports

3.2.1.2.2.2.

Bulk Cargo Ports

3.2.1.2.2.3.

General Cargo Ports

3.2.1.2.2.4.

Passenger Ports

3.2.1.2.3.

Hinterland Connections

3.2.1.2.3.1.

Rail Connections

3.2.1.2.3.2.

3.2.1.2.3.3.

Inland Waterway Links

3.2.1.2.3.4.

Pipeline Connections

3.2.1.3.

3.2.1.3.1.

Container Ships

3.2.1.3.1.1.

Container Capacity Classes

3.2.1.3.1.2.

Ultra Large Container Vessels

3.2.1.3.1.3.

3.2.1.3.2.

3.2.1.3.2.1.

Crude Oil Tankers

3.2.1.3.2.2.

Product Tankers

3.2.1.3.2.3.

Chemical Tankers

3.2.1.3.2.4.

3.2.1.3.3.

3.2.1.3.3.1.

Dry Bulk Carriers

3.2.1.3.3.2.

Specialized Bulk Vessels

3.2.1.3.3.3.

Self-Unloading Ships

3.2.1.3.4.

Roll-on/Roll-off Ships

3.2.1.3.4.1.

3.2.1.3.4.2.

Cargo RoRo Vessels

3.2.1.3.4.3.

Passenger-Cargo Ferries

3.2.2.

Inland Waterways

3.2.2.1.

Rivers and Canals

3.2.2.1.1.

Navigable Rivers

3.2.2.1.1.1.

Natural Navigation Channels

3.2.2.1.1.2.

River Improvements

3.2.2.1.1.3.

Seasonal Navigation

3.2.2.1.2.

3.2.2.1.2.1.

3.2.2.1.2.2.

3.2.2.1.2.3.

Recreational Waterways

3.2.2.2.

Barges and Operations

3.2.2.2.1.

3.2.2.2.1.1.

Dry Cargo Barges

3.2.2.2.1.2.

Liquid Cargo Barges

3.2.2.2.1.3.

Specialized Barges

3.2.2.2.2.

Lock Operations

3.2.2.2.2.1.

Lock Design and Function

3.2.2.2.2.2.

Navigation Procedures

3.2.2.2.2.3.

Traffic Management

3.2.2.2.3.

Towing Operations

3.2.2.2.3.1.

Towboat Configuration

3.2.2.2.3.2.

3.2.2.2.3.3.

Navigation Challenges

3.3.

Air Transportation

3.3.1.

3.3.1.1.

3.3.1.1.1.

Airport Classifications

3.3.1.1.1.1.

International Airports

3.3.1.1.1.2.

Regional Airports

3.3.1.1.1.3.

General Aviation Airports

3.3.1.1.2.

Runways and Airfield Design

3.3.1.1.2.1.

Runway Configuration

3.3.1.1.2.2.

Taxiway Systems

3.3.1.1.2.3.

Aircraft Parking Areas

3.3.1.1.3.

Terminals and Ground Facilities

3.3.1.1.3.1.

Passenger Terminals

3.3.1.1.3.2.

Cargo Terminals

3.3.1.1.3.3.

Ground Support Equipment

3.3.1.2.

Air Traffic Control

3.3.1.2.1.

Airspace Management

3.3.1.2.1.1.

Controlled Airspace

3.3.1.2.1.2.

Air Traffic Flow Management

3.3.1.2.1.3.

Separation Standards

3.3.1.2.2.

Navigation Systems

3.3.1.2.2.1.

Ground-Based Navigation

3.3.1.2.2.2.

Satellite Navigation

3.3.1.2.2.3.

Approach and Landing Systems

3.3.2.

Networks and Operations

3.3.2.1.

3.3.2.1.1.

Hub-and-Spoke Model

3.3.2.1.1.1.

Hub Airport Functions

3.3.2.1.1.2.

Spoke Route Operations

3.3.2.1.1.3.

Transfer Passenger Flows

3.3.2.1.2.

Point-to-Point Model

3.3.2.1.2.1.

Direct Route Services

3.3.2.1.2.2.

Low-Cost Carrier Operations

3.3.2.1.2.3.

Market Efficiency

3.3.2.2.

Airline Industry Dynamics

3.3.2.2.1.

Market Structure

3.3.2.2.1.1.

Full-Service Carriers

3.3.2.2.1.2.

Low-Cost Carriers

3.3.2.2.1.3.

Regional Airlines

3.3.2.2.2.

Alliances and Code-Sharing

3.3.2.2.2.1.

Global Airline Alliances

3.3.2.2.2.2.

Route Coordination

3.3.2.2.2.3.

Revenue Sharing

3.3.2.2.3.

Regulation and Deregulation

3.3.2.2.3.1.

Safety Regulation

3.3.2.2.3.2.

Economic Regulation

3.3.2.2.3.3.

International Aviation Agreements

3.3.3.

3.3.3.1.

Cargo Aircraft Types

3.3.3.1.1.

Dedicated Freighters

3.3.3.1.2.

Passenger-Cargo Combinations

3.3.3.1.3.

Express Delivery Aircraft

3.3.3.2.

3.3.3.2.1.

Integrated Carrier Hubs

3.3.3.2.2.

Multi-Carrier Facilities

3.3.3.2.3.

Cargo Processing Systems

3.3.3.3.

Express Delivery Services

3.3.3.3.1.

Overnight Delivery Networks

3.3.3.3.2.

Same-Day Services

3.3.3.3.3.

International Express

3.4.

Pipeline Transportation

3.4.1.

Infrastructure and Networks

3.4.1.1.

3.4.1.1.1.

Transmission Pipelines

3.4.1.1.2.

Distribution Pipelines

3.4.1.1.3.

Gathering Pipelines

3.4.1.2.

Pipeline Components

3.4.1.2.1.

Pipe Materials and Specifications

3.4.1.2.2.

Pumping and Compression Stations

3.4.1.2.3.

Storage Facilities

3.4.1.2.4.

Control Systems

3.4.1.3.

Construction and Maintenance

3.4.1.3.1.

Route Selection

3.4.1.3.2.

Environmental Considerations

3.4.1.3.3.

Integrity Management

3.4.2.

Commodities Transported

3.4.2.1.

Oil and Petroleum Products

3.4.2.1.1.

Crude Oil Pipelines

3.4.2.1.2.

Refined Product Pipelines

3.4.2.1.3.

Pipeline Capacity and Utilization

3.4.2.2.

3.4.2.2.1.

Interstate Gas Pipelines

3.4.2.2.2.

Distribution Networks

3.4.2.2.3.

Liquefied Natural Gas Systems

3.4.2.3.

Other Commodities

3.4.2.3.1.

Water Pipelines

3.4.2.3.2.

Chemical Pipelines

3.4.2.3.3.

Slurry Pipelines

3.4.3.

Geopolitical Significance

3.4.3.1.

Cross-Border Pipelines

3.4.3.1.1.

International Energy Security

3.4.3.1.2.

Transit Country Relations

3.4.3.1.3.

Pipeline Diplomacy

3.4.3.2.

Security and Vulnerability

3.4.3.2.1.

Physical Security Measures

3.4.3.2.2.

Cybersecurity Threats

3.4.3.2.3.

Emergency Response Systems

3.5.

Intermodal and Multimodal Transportation

3.5.1.

Concepts and Definitions

3.5.1.1.

Intermodal Transportation

3.5.1.1.1.

Single Unit Load Concept

3.5.1.1.2.

Mode Transfer Efficiency

3.5.1.1.3.

Seamless Connectivity

3.5.1.2.

Multimodal Transportation

3.5.1.2.1.

Multiple Mode Integration

3.5.1.2.2.

Service Coordination

3.5.1.2.3.

Unified Transportation Systems

3.5.2.

Containerization Impact

3.5.2.1.

Container Standardization

3.5.2.1.1.

ISO Container Standards

3.5.2.1.2.

Container Types and Sizes

3.5.2.1.3.

Handling Equipment Standardization

3.5.2.2.

Global Trade Transformation

3.5.2.2.1.

Shipping Cost Reductions

3.5.2.2.2.

Port Productivity Improvements

3.5.2.2.3.

Supply Chain Integration

3.5.3.

Intermodal Terminals and Facilities

3.5.3.1.

Terminal Design and Operations

3.5.3.1.1.

Container Terminals

3.5.3.1.2.

Intermodal Rail Yards

3.5.3.1.3.

Truck-Rail Transfer Facilities

3.5.3.2.

Logistics Integration

3.5.3.2.1.

Warehouse Co-location

3.5.3.2.2.

Distribution Center Functions

3.5.3.2.3.

Value-Added Services

3.5.3.3.

Technology Applications

3.5.3.3.1.

Terminal Operating Systems

3.5.3.3.2.

Automated Handling Equipment

3.5.3.3.3.

Real-Time Tracking Systems

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4. Transportation and Economic Activity