Political Economy

6.

Contemporary Issues in Political Economy

6.1.

Globalization and Its Discontents

6.1.1.

Economic Globalization

6.1.1.1.

Trade Integration

6.1.1.2.

Financial Integration

6.1.1.3.

Production Integration

6.1.1.4.

Technological Drivers

6.1.2.

Political Dimensions

6.1.2.1.

Sovereignty Challenges

6.1.2.2.

Global Governance

6.1.2.3.

Democratic Deficit

6.1.2.4.

Regulatory Competition

6.1.3.

Social and Cultural Impacts

6.1.3.1.

Cultural Homogenization

6.1.3.2.

Identity and Resistance

6.1.3.3.

Migration Flows

6.1.3.4.

Social Movements

6.1.4.

Globalization Backlash

6.1.4.1.

Anti-Globalization Movements

6.1.4.2.

Populist Responses

6.1.4.3.

Protectionist Policies

6.1.4.4.

Deglobalization Trends

6.2.

Inequality and Redistribution

6.2.1.

Measuring Inequality

6.2.1.1.

Income Inequality

6.2.1.2.

Wealth Inequality

6.2.1.3.

Gini Coefficient

6.2.1.4.

Other Inequality Measures

6.2.2.

Trends in Inequality

6.2.2.1.

Within-Country Inequality

6.2.2.2.

Between-Country Inequality

6.2.2.3.

Global Inequality

6.2.2.4.

Historical Patterns

6.2.3.

Causes of Rising Inequality

6.2.3.1.

Skill-Biased Technological Change

6.2.3.2.

Globalization Effects

6.2.3.3.

Institutional Changes

6.2.3.4.

6.2.3.5.

Capital vs. Labor

6.2.4.

Political Consequences

6.2.4.1.

Social Cohesion

6.2.4.2.

Political Polarization

6.2.4.3.

Democratic Legitimacy

6.2.4.4.

Populist Appeals

6.2.5.

Policy Responses

6.2.5.1.

Progressive Taxation

6.2.5.2.

Social Transfers

6.2.5.3.

6.2.5.4.

Universal Basic Income

6.2.5.5.

Education and Training

6.3.

Environmental Political Economy

6.3.1.

Environmental Challenges

6.3.1.1.

6.3.1.2.

Resource Depletion

6.3.1.3.

6.3.1.4.

Biodiversity Loss

6.3.2.

Market Failures and Environment

6.3.2.1.

6.3.2.2.

Common Pool Resources

6.3.2.3.

Tragedy of the Commons

6.3.2.4.

Public Goods Aspects

6.3.3.

Environmental Policy Instruments

6.3.3.1.

Command and Control

6.3.3.2.

Market-Based Instruments

6.3.3.2.1.

6.3.3.2.2.

Emissions Trading

6.3.3.2.3.

Environmental Taxes

6.3.3.3.

Voluntary Approaches

6.3.4.

International Environmental Cooperation

6.3.4.1.

Global Environmental Agreements

6.3.4.2.

Climate Negotiations

6.3.4.3.

Trade and Environment

6.3.4.4.

Green Technology Transfer

6.3.5.

Sustainable Development

6.3.5.1.

Concept and Definitions

6.3.5.2.

Economic Growth vs. Environment

6.3.5.3.

6.3.5.4.

Circular Economy

6.4.

Technology and Digital Economy

6.4.1.

Technological Change

6.4.1.1.

Innovation Systems

6.4.1.2.

Disruptive Technologies

6.4.1.3.

Automation and AI

6.4.1.4.

Platform Economics

6.4.2.

Intellectual Property

6.4.2.1.

6.4.2.2.

Copyright Protection

6.4.2.3.

Innovation Incentives

6.4.2.4.

Access vs. Innovation

6.4.3.

Digital Transformation

6.4.3.1.

Digital Platforms

6.4.3.2.

Network Effects

6.4.3.3.

6.4.3.4.

Privacy and Regulation

6.4.4.

6.4.4.1.

Job Displacement

6.4.4.2.

Skill Requirements

6.4.4.3.

6.4.4.4.

Policy Responses

6.4.5.

6.4.5.1.

Access Inequalities

6.4.5.2.

6.4.5.3.

Global Disparities

6.5.

Financialization

6.5.1.

Growth of Finance

6.5.1.1.

Financial Sector Expansion

6.5.1.2.

Financial Innovation

6.5.1.3.

6.5.1.4.

6.5.2.

Causes of Financialization

6.5.2.1.

6.5.2.2.

Technological Change

6.5.2.3.

6.5.2.4.

6.5.3.

Economic Consequences

6.5.3.1.

Investment Patterns

6.5.3.2.

Income Distribution

6.5.3.3.

Economic Instability

6.5.3.4.

Real Economy Effects

6.5.4.

2008 Global Financial Crisis

6.5.4.1.

6.5.4.2.

Transmission Mechanisms

6.5.4.3.

Policy Responses

6.5.4.4.

Regulatory Reforms

6.5.5.

Post-Crisis Developments

6.5.5.1.

Too Big to Fail

6.5.5.2.

Macroprudential Regulation

6.5.5.3.

Central Bank Policies

6.5.5.4.

Ongoing Challenges

6.6.

Populism and Political Economy

6.6.1.

Defining Populism

6.6.1.1.

Populist Characteristics

6.6.1.2.

Left vs. Right Populism

6.6.1.3.

Populist Rhetoric

6.6.2.

6.6.2.1.

Economic Insecurity

6.6.2.2.

Deindustrialization

6.6.2.3.

Regional Disparities

6.6.2.4.

Globalization Losers

6.6.3.

Populist Economic Policies

6.6.3.1.

6.6.3.2.

Anti-Immigration

6.6.3.3.

Redistribution Promises

6.6.3.4.

Anti-Elite Rhetoric

6.6.4.

Challenges to Liberal Order

6.6.4.1.

International Institutions

6.6.4.2.

6.6.4.3.

Multilateralism

6.6.4.4.

Democratic Norms

6.6.5.

Policy Implications

6.6.5.1.

Economic Nationalism

6.6.5.2.

Industrial Policy Revival

6.6.5.3.

Social Protection

6.6.5.4.

Democratic Reform

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5. International Political Economy

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1. Introduction to Political Economy