Natural Disasters

2.

Geological Disasters

2.1.

2.1.1.

Earth Structure and Plate Tectonics

2.1.1.1.

Earth's Internal Structure

2.1.1.2.

Lithospheric Plates

2.1.1.3.

Plate Boundary Types

2.1.1.3.1.

Divergent Boundaries

2.1.1.3.2.

Convergent Boundaries

2.1.1.3.3.

Transform Boundaries

2.1.1.4.

Major Fault Systems Worldwide

2.1.2.

Earthquake Causes and Mechanisms

2.1.2.1.

Tectonic Earthquakes

2.1.2.2.

Volcanic Earthquakes

2.1.2.3.

Collapse Earthquakes

2.1.2.4.

Explosion Earthquakes

2.1.2.5.

Human-induced Seismicity

2.1.2.5.1.

Reservoir-induced Seismicity

2.1.2.5.2.

Mining-induced Seismicity

2.1.2.5.3.

Hydraulic Fracturing

2.1.2.5.4.

Geothermal Operations

2.1.3.

Seismic Wave Types and Propagation

2.1.3.1.

2.1.3.1.1.

Primary Waves (P-waves)

2.1.3.1.2.

Secondary Waves (S-waves)

2.1.3.2.

2.1.3.2.1.

2.1.3.2.2.

2.1.3.3.

Wave Velocity and Attenuation

2.1.4.

Earthquake Measurement Systems

2.1.4.1.

Magnitude Scales

2.1.4.1.1.

2.1.4.1.2.

Moment Magnitude Scale

2.1.4.1.3.

Body Wave Magnitude

2.1.4.1.4.

Surface Wave Magnitude

2.1.4.2.

Intensity Scales

2.1.4.2.1.

Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale

2.1.4.2.2.

European Macroseismic Scale

2.1.4.3.

Seismograph Networks and Operation

2.1.5.

Earthquake Hazards and Effects

2.1.5.1.

2.1.5.1.1.

Peak Ground Acceleration

2.1.5.1.2.

Spectral Response

2.1.5.1.3.

Duration Effects

2.1.5.2.

2.1.5.2.1.

2.1.5.2.2.

Lateral Spreading

2.1.5.2.3.

2.1.5.3.

Surface Rupture

2.1.5.4.

Landslides and Rockfalls

2.1.5.5.

2.1.6.

Global Seismic Zones

2.1.6.1.

Pacific Ring of Fire

2.1.6.2.

Alpine-Himalayan Belt

2.1.6.3.

Mid-Atlantic Ridge

2.1.6.4.

Intraplate Seismic Zones

2.1.7.

Earthquake Prediction and Forecasting

2.1.7.1.

Precursor Phenomena

2.1.7.2.

Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Assessment

2.1.7.3.

Early Warning Systems

2.1.7.4.

Earthquake Clustering

2.2.

Volcanic Eruptions

2.2.1.

Volcano Formation and Types

2.2.1.1.

Shield Volcanoes

2.2.1.2.

Stratovolcanoes

2.2.1.3.

2.2.1.4.

2.2.1.5.

2.2.1.6.

2.2.2.

Magma Properties and Behavior

2.2.2.1.

Magma Composition

2.2.2.1.1.

2.2.2.1.2.

Intermediate Magma

2.2.2.1.3.

2.2.2.2.

Viscosity Factors

2.2.2.3.

Gas Content and Solubility

2.2.2.4.

Temperature Effects

2.2.3.

Eruption Styles and Classifications

2.2.3.1.

Effusive Eruptions

2.2.3.2.

Explosive Eruptions

2.2.3.3.

Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI)

2.2.3.4.

Eruption Triggers

2.2.4.

Volcanic Hazards

2.2.4.1.

2.2.4.1.1.

2.2.4.1.2.

2.2.4.1.3.

2.2.4.2.

Pyroclastic Phenomena

2.2.4.2.1.

Pyroclastic Flows

2.2.4.2.2.

Pyroclastic Surges

2.2.4.2.3.

Pyroclastic Falls

2.2.4.3.

Volcanic Ash and Tephra

2.2.4.3.1.

Ash Dispersal Patterns

2.2.4.3.2.

Ash Impact on Aviation

2.2.4.3.3.

Agricultural Effects

2.2.4.4.

2.2.4.4.1.

2.2.4.4.2.

2.2.4.4.3.

2.2.4.5.

2.2.4.5.1.

2.2.4.5.2.

2.2.4.5.3.

Hydrogen Sulfide

2.2.4.5.4.

Fluorine Compounds

2.2.5.

Volcanic Monitoring Techniques

2.2.5.1.

Seismic Monitoring

2.2.5.2.

Ground Deformation Measurement

2.2.5.3.

Gas Emission Analysis

2.2.5.4.

Thermal Monitoring

2.2.5.5.

Remote Sensing Applications

2.2.6.

Volcanic Risk Assessment

2.2.6.1.

2.2.6.2.

Vulnerability Analysis

2.2.6.3.

2.2.7.

Notable Volcanic Events

2.2.7.1.

Historical Eruptions

2.2.7.2.

Prehistoric Super-eruptions

2.2.7.3.

Recent Volcanic Crises

2.3.

2.3.1.

Tsunami Generation Mechanisms

2.3.1.1.

Submarine Earthquakes

2.3.1.1.1.

Fault Displacement

2.3.1.1.2.

Rupture Characteristics

2.3.1.2.

Volcanic Tsunamis

2.3.1.2.1.

Pyroclastic Flows

2.3.1.2.2.

Volcanic Explosions

2.3.1.2.3.

Volcanic Landslides

2.3.1.3.

Landslide Tsunamis

2.3.1.3.1.

Submarine Landslides

2.3.1.3.2.

Coastal Landslides

2.3.1.3.3.

Volcanic Slope Failures

2.3.1.4.

Meteorite Impact Tsunamis

2.3.2.

Tsunami Wave Physics

2.3.2.1.

Wave Generation Process

2.3.2.2.

Deep Water Propagation

2.3.2.2.1.

Wave Speed Calculations

2.3.2.2.2.

Wave Dispersion

2.3.2.3.

Shallow Water Transformation

2.3.2.3.1.

2.3.2.3.2.

Wave Refraction

2.3.2.3.3.

Wave Diffraction

2.3.2.4.

Coastal Interaction

2.3.2.4.1.

2.3.2.4.2.

Inundation Distance

2.3.2.4.3.

Drawdown Effects

2.3.3.

Tsunami Detection and Warning

2.3.3.1.

Deep Ocean Detection

2.3.3.1.1.

DART Buoy Systems

2.3.3.1.2.

Ocean Bottom Pressure Recorders

2.3.3.2.

Coastal Monitoring

2.3.3.2.1.

Tide Gauge Networks

2.3.3.2.2.

2.3.3.3.

Warning System Components

2.3.3.3.1.

Regional Warning Centers

2.3.3.3.2.

Communication Networks

2.3.3.3.3.

Public Alert Systems

2.3.4.

Tsunami Impacts

2.3.4.1.

Coastal Flooding

2.3.4.2.

Erosion and Sedimentation

2.3.4.3.

Infrastructure Damage

2.3.4.4.

Human Casualties

2.3.4.5.

Economic Losses

2.3.5.

Tsunami Preparedness

2.3.5.1.

2.3.5.2.

Evacuation Planning

2.3.5.3.

Public Education

2.3.5.4.

Building Standards

2.4.

Mass Wasting Events

2.4.1.

Classification of Mass Movements

2.4.1.1.

2.4.1.1.1.

2.4.1.1.2.

2.4.1.2.

2.4.1.2.1.

2.4.1.2.2.

2.4.1.3.

2.4.1.3.1.

Rotational Slides

2.4.1.3.2.

Translational Slides

2.4.1.3.3.

2.4.1.4.

Lateral Spreads

2.4.1.5.

2.4.1.5.1.

2.4.1.5.2.

2.4.1.5.3.

2.4.1.5.4.

Rock Avalanches

2.4.2.

Controlling Factors

2.4.2.1.

2.4.2.2.

Material Properties

2.4.2.2.1.

Strength Parameters

2.4.2.2.2.

2.4.2.2.3.

Weathering State

2.4.2.3.

Groundwater Conditions

2.4.2.4.

Climate Factors

2.4.3.

Triggering Mechanisms

2.4.3.1.

Rainfall and Snowmelt

2.4.3.2.

2.4.3.3.

Volcanic Activity

2.4.3.4.

Human Activities

2.4.3.4.1.

2.4.3.4.2.

2.4.3.4.3.

2.4.3.4.4.

2.4.4.

Slope Stability Analysis

2.4.4.1.

Factor of Safety Calculations

2.4.4.2.

Infinite Slope Analysis

2.4.4.3.

Circular Failure Analysis

2.4.4.4.

Wedge Failure Analysis

2.4.5.

Hazard Assessment and Mapping

2.4.5.1.

Susceptibility Mapping

2.4.5.2.

Hazard Zonation

2.4.5.3.

Risk Assessment

2.4.6.

Mitigation and Prevention

2.4.6.1.

Slope Stabilization Techniques

2.4.6.2.

Drainage Systems

2.4.6.3.

Retaining Structures

2.4.6.4.

Monitoring Systems

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3. Hydrometeorological Disasters