Economics of Education

  1. Education Policy and Evaluation
    1. School Finance
      1. Sources of K-12 Funding
        1. Local Funding
          1. Property Tax Revenue
            1. Local Tax Base Variations
              1. Municipal Overburden
              2. State Funding
                1. State Aid Formulas
                  1. Foundation Programs
                    1. Equalization Mechanisms
                    2. Federal Funding
                      1. Title I Programs
                        1. Special Education Funding
                          1. Categorical Programs
                        2. School Finance Equalization Reforms
                          1. Court Mandates and Legislation
                            1. Adequacy Lawsuits
                              1. Equity Lawsuits
                                1. Constitutional Requirements
                                2. Impact on Equity and Outcomes
                                  1. Spending Equalization
                                    1. Achievement Gap Effects
                                      1. Unintended Consequences
                                      2. Reform Mechanisms
                                        1. Foundation Programs
                                          1. Power Equalization
                                            1. Full State Funding
                                          2. Causal Effects of School Spending on Outcomes
                                            1. Methodological Approaches
                                              1. Instrumental Variables
                                                1. Regression Discontinuity
                                                  1. Event Studies
                                                  2. Evidence from Policy Changes
                                                    1. Court-Ordered Reforms
                                                      1. Legislative Changes
                                                        1. Natural Experiments
                                                        2. Spending Categories
                                                          1. Instructional Spending
                                                            1. Capital Spending
                                                              1. Support Services
                                                          2. School Choice and Competition
                                                            1. Theoretical Arguments for School Choice
                                                              1. Efficiency and Innovation
                                                                1. Market Competition
                                                                  1. Productive Efficiency
                                                                    1. Innovation Incentives
                                                                    2. Parental Empowerment
                                                                      1. Consumer Sovereignty
                                                                        1. Preference Matching
                                                                          1. Parental Satisfaction
                                                                        2. Theoretical Arguments against School Choice
                                                                          1. Cream Skimming and Segregation
                                                                            1. Student Selection
                                                                              1. Increased Segregation
                                                                                1. Equity Concerns
                                                                                2. Impact on Public Schools
                                                                                  1. Resource Drain
                                                                                    1. Peer Composition Effects
                                                                                      1. System-Wide Effects
                                                                                    2. Charter Schools
                                                                                      1. Governance and Accountability
                                                                                        1. Charter Authorization
                                                                                          1. Performance Contracts
                                                                                            1. Renewal Processes
                                                                                            2. Performance Evidence
                                                                                              1. Student Achievement Effects
                                                                                                1. Subgroup Analysis
                                                                                                  1. Long-Term Outcomes
                                                                                                  2. Charter School Types
                                                                                                    1. Start-Up Charters
                                                                                                      1. Conversion Charters
                                                                                                        1. Management Organizations
                                                                                                      2. School Vouchers
                                                                                                        1. Design and Implementation
                                                                                                          1. Universal Vouchers
                                                                                                            1. Targeted Vouchers
                                                                                                              1. Tax Credit Programs
                                                                                                              2. Empirical Evidence
                                                                                                                1. Randomized Controlled Trials
                                                                                                                  1. Quasi-Experimental Studies
                                                                                                                    1. Long-Term Follow-Up
                                                                                                                    2. Voucher Program Types
                                                                                                                      1. Milwaukee Parental Choice Program
                                                                                                                        1. Washington DC Opportunity Scholarship
                                                                                                                          1. Florida Tax Credit Programs
                                                                                                                        2. Magnet Schools and Open Enrollment
                                                                                                                          1. Specialized Curricula
                                                                                                                            1. STEM Magnets
                                                                                                                              1. Arts Magnets
                                                                                                                                1. International Baccalaureate
                                                                                                                                2. Access and Equity
                                                                                                                                  1. Admission Procedures
                                                                                                                                    1. Transportation Barriers
                                                                                                                                      1. Information Access
                                                                                                                                    2. Empirical Evidence on Competitive Effects
                                                                                                                                      1. Student Achievement
                                                                                                                                        1. Test Score Effects
                                                                                                                                          1. Graduation Rates
                                                                                                                                            1. College Enrollment
                                                                                                                                            2. School Improvement
                                                                                                                                              1. Public School Response
                                                                                                                                                1. Innovation and Efficiency
                                                                                                                                                  1. Resource Allocation
                                                                                                                                              2. Accountability and Standards-Based Reform
                                                                                                                                                1. The Role of High-Stakes Testing
                                                                                                                                                  1. Test-Based Accountability Systems
                                                                                                                                                    1. Performance Standards
                                                                                                                                                      1. Consequences for Schools
                                                                                                                                                        1. Student Promotion Policies
                                                                                                                                                        2. Impact on Teaching and Learning
                                                                                                                                                          1. Curriculum Alignment
                                                                                                                                                            1. Instructional Focus
                                                                                                                                                              1. Test Preparation
                                                                                                                                                            2. Federal Policies
                                                                                                                                                              1. No Child Left Behind
                                                                                                                                                                1. Adequate Yearly Progress
                                                                                                                                                                  1. School Improvement Requirements
                                                                                                                                                                    1. Teacher Quality Provisions
                                                                                                                                                                    2. Every Student Succeeds Act
                                                                                                                                                                      1. State Flexibility
                                                                                                                                                                        1. Multiple Measures
                                                                                                                                                                          1. School Improvement
                                                                                                                                                                          2. Race to the Top
                                                                                                                                                                            1. Competitive Grants
                                                                                                                                                                              1. Reform Incentives
                                                                                                                                                                                1. Innovation Promotion
                                                                                                                                                                              2. School and Teacher Accountability Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                1. School Report Cards
                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Performance Indicators
                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Public Reporting
                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Transparency Requirements
                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Teacher Evaluation Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Multiple Measures
                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Student Growth Components
                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Professional Practice
                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Performance-Based Consequences
                                                                                                                                                                                              1. School Sanctions
                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Rewards and Recognition
                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Intervention Strategies
                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Unintended Consequences
                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Teaching to the Test
                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Curriculum Narrowing
                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Test Preparation Time
                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Gaming Behaviors
                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Strategic Behavior by Schools
                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Student Exclusion
                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Grade Retention
                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Resource Reallocation
                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Cheating Scandals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Adult Cheating
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Pressure and Incentives
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Detection and Prevention
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Narrowing of Curriculum
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Reduced Arts Education
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Limited Science and Social Studies
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Focus on Tested Subjects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Early Childhood Education
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Economic Rationale for Investment in Early Years
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Brain Development and Learning
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Critical Periods
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Neuroplasticity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Skill Formation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Long-Term Economic Benefits
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Human Capital Development
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Crime Reduction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Social Benefits
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Heckman's Framework
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Skill Complementarity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Dynamic Complementarity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Optimal Investment Timing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Long-term Effects of Preschool Programs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Academic Achievement
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Test Score Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Grade Retention
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Special Education Placement
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Social and Behavioral Outcomes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Social Skills
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Behavioral Problems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Mental Health
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Adult Outcomes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Educational Attainment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Employment and Earnings
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Criminal Justice Involvement
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Cost-Benefit Analysis of Early Interventions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Perry Preschool Project
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Program Description
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Long-Term Follow-Up
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Benefit-Cost Ratios
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Head Start Program
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Program Evaluation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Impact Studies
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Cost-Effectiveness
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Abecedarian Project
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Intensive Early Intervention
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Randomized Design
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Lifetime Benefits
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Higher Education Policy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Government Subsidies to Institutions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Direct Appropriations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. State Funding for Public Universities
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Per-Student Funding
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Performance-Based Funding
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Research Funding
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Federal Research Grants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Indirect Cost Recovery
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Research Infrastructure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Tax Benefits
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Property Tax Exemptions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Income Tax Exemptions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Charitable Deductions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Student Financial Aid Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Need-Based Grants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Pell Grant Program
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. State Grant Programs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Institutional Aid
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Merit-Based Scholarships
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Academic Merit Awards
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. State Merit Programs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Private Scholarships
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Student Loans
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Government Loans
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Subsidized Loans
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Unsubsidized Loans
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. PLUS Loans
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Private Loans
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Market-Based Lending
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Credit Requirements
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Interest Rates
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Income-Driven Repayment Plans
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Income-Based Repayment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Pay As You Earn
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Public Service Loan Forgiveness
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Work-Study Programs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Federal Work-Study
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Campus Employment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Community Service
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Impact of Aid on College Access and Success
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Enrollment Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Access for Low-Income Students
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Institution Choice
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Full-Time vs. Part-Time Enrollment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Persistence and Completion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Retention Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Time to Degree
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Graduation Rates
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Aid Design and Effectiveness
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Grant vs. Loan Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Aid Timing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Simplification of Aid Process
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Affirmative Action in Admissions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Effects on Diversity and Outcomes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Enrollment Diversity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Academic Outcomes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Long-Term Benefits
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Alternative Approaches
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Socioeconomic Preferences
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Top Percent Plans
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Holistic Review
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. College Affordability and Student Debt
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Student Debt Burden
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Average Debt Levels
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Default Rates
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Repayment Challenges
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Policy Proposals for Debt Relief
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Loan Forgiveness Programs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Income Share Agreements
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Free College Proposals