Economics of Education

  1. The Production of Education
    1. The Education Production Function
      1. Conceptual Framework
        1. Input-Output Relationships
          1. Production Function Specification
            1. Efficiency and Effectiveness Concepts
            2. Specifying Inputs
              1. Family Inputs
                1. Parental Involvement
                  1. Homework Assistance
                    1. School Participation
                      1. Educational Expectations
                      2. Home Environment
                        1. Learning Resources
                          1. Study Space
                            1. Family Routines
                            2. Parental Human Capital
                              1. Educational Background
                                1. Cognitive Skills
                              2. School Inputs
                                1. School Resources
                                  1. Financial Resources
                                    1. Physical Infrastructure
                                      1. Learning Materials
                                      2. Teacher Quality
                                        1. Teacher Effectiveness
                                          1. Professional Qualifications
                                            1. Experience and Training
                                            2. Class Size
                                              1. Student-Teacher Ratios
                                                1. Classroom Management
                                                2. Curriculum and Instructional Time
                                                  1. Academic Content Standards
                                                    1. Time on Task
                                                      1. Instructional Methods
                                                      2. School Leadership
                                                        1. Principal Effectiveness
                                                          1. Administrative Support
                                                        2. Peer Inputs
                                                          1. Peer Group Composition
                                                            1. Academic Ability Distribution
                                                              1. Socioeconomic Mix
                                                              2. Peer Achievement Levels
                                                                1. Average Achievement
                                                                  1. Achievement Variance
                                                                  2. Peer Behavior
                                                                    1. Classroom Disruption
                                                                      1. Academic Engagement
                                                                    2. Innate Ability
                                                                      1. Genetic Factors
                                                                        1. Inherited Cognitive Ability
                                                                          1. Learning Disabilities
                                                                          2. Early Childhood Development
                                                                            1. Pre-School Experiences
                                                                              1. Developmental Milestones
                                                                          3. Measuring Outputs
                                                                            1. Standardized Test Scores
                                                                              1. Achievement Test Performance
                                                                                1. Aptitude Test Results
                                                                                  1. International Assessments
                                                                                  2. High School Graduation Rates
                                                                                    1. On-Time Graduation
                                                                                      1. Extended Graduation Rates
                                                                                      2. College Enrollment and Completion
                                                                                        1. College-Going Rates
                                                                                          1. Degree Completion
                                                                                            1. Time to Degree
                                                                                            2. Labor Market Earnings
                                                                                              1. Post-Graduation Employment
                                                                                                1. Wage Outcomes
                                                                                                  1. Career Progression
                                                                                                  2. Non-Cognitive Outcomes
                                                                                                    1. Social Skills Development
                                                                                                      1. Character Formation
                                                                                                        1. Citizenship Preparation
                                                                                                    2. Analysis of School Inputs
                                                                                                      1. School Expenditures and Resources
                                                                                                        1. Per-Pupil Spending
                                                                                                          1. Current Expenditures
                                                                                                            1. Capital Expenditures
                                                                                                              1. Spending Categories
                                                                                                              2. Allocation of Resources
                                                                                                                1. Instructional vs. Non-Instructional
                                                                                                                  1. Administrative Overhead
                                                                                                                    1. Support Services
                                                                                                                    2. The Coleman Report and its Implications
                                                                                                                      1. Findings on Resource Effects
                                                                                                                        1. Methodological Critiques
                                                                                                                          1. Policy Implications
                                                                                                                          2. Resource Adequacy Studies
                                                                                                                            1. Costing-Out Studies
                                                                                                                              1. Adequacy Standards
                                                                                                                            2. Class Size
                                                                                                                              1. Theoretical Effects on Learning
                                                                                                                                1. Individual Attention
                                                                                                                                  1. Classroom Management
                                                                                                                                    1. Instructional Quality
                                                                                                                                    2. Methodological Challenges in Estimation
                                                                                                                                      1. Endogeneity of Class Size
                                                                                                                                        1. Selection Bias
                                                                                                                                          1. Measurement Issues
                                                                                                                                          2. Evidence from Randomized Experiments
                                                                                                                                            1. Project STAR
                                                                                                                                              1. Experimental Design
                                                                                                                                                1. Short-Term Effects
                                                                                                                                                  1. Long-Term Follow-Up
                                                                                                                                                  2. International Evidence
                                                                                                                                                    1. Replication Studies
                                                                                                                                                    2. Optimal Class Size
                                                                                                                                                      1. Cost-Effectiveness Analysis
                                                                                                                                                        1. Grade-Level Differences
                                                                                                                                                      2. Teacher Quality
                                                                                                                                                        1. Defining Teacher Effectiveness
                                                                                                                                                          1. Student Achievement Growth
                                                                                                                                                            1. Multiple Measures of Effectiveness
                                                                                                                                                              1. Classroom Observation
                                                                                                                                                              2. Measuring Teacher Effectiveness
                                                                                                                                                                1. Value-Added Models
                                                                                                                                                                  1. Statistical Methodology
                                                                                                                                                                    1. Assumptions and Limitations
                                                                                                                                                                      1. Bias and Reliability Issues
                                                                                                                                                                      2. Student Growth Percentiles
                                                                                                                                                                        1. Composite Effectiveness Measures
                                                                                                                                                                        2. Teacher Characteristics
                                                                                                                                                                          1. Experience
                                                                                                                                                                            1. Experience-Effectiveness Relationship
                                                                                                                                                                              1. Novice Teacher Performance
                                                                                                                                                                                1. Career Stage Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                2. Certification
                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Traditional Certification
                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Alternative Certification
                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Certification Requirements
                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Education Level
                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Undergraduate Preparation
                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Graduate Degrees
                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Subject Matter Knowledge
                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Cognitive Ability
                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Teacher Test Scores
                                                                                                                                                                                                1. College Selectivity
                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Professional Development
                                                                                                                                                                                                1. In-Service Training
                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Continuing Education
                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Mentoring Programs
                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Professional Learning Communities
                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. The Teacher Labor Market
                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Teacher Recruitment
                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Teacher Preparation Programs
                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Alternative Pathways
                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Recruitment Strategies
                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Teacher Retention
                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Attrition Rates
                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Factors Affecting Retention
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Career Satisfaction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Teacher Compensation Structures
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Salary Schedules
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Step and Lane Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Experience Premiums
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Education Premiums
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Performance Pay and Incentives
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Merit Pay Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Bonus Programs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Career Ladder Programs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Benefits and Working Conditions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Health Insurance
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Retirement Benefits
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Workplace Environment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Teacher Mobility and Turnover
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Between-School Mobility
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Career Transitions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Geographic Mobility
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Teacher Supply and Demand
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Shortage Areas
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Surplus Areas
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Market Equilibrium
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. School Capital and Infrastructure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Building Quality
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Physical Condition
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Age of Facilities
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Maintenance and Upkeep
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Access to Technology
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Computer Availability
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Internet Connectivity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Educational Software
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Safety and Learning Environment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. School Safety Measures
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Disciplinary Climate
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Learning Atmosphere
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Specialized Facilities
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Science Laboratories
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Libraries and Media Centers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Athletic Facilities
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Curriculum and Instructional Time
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Curriculum Standards
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Academic Standards
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Curriculum Alignment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Scope and Sequence
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Instructional Hours
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Length of School Day
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Length of School Year
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Time Allocation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Extracurricular Activities
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Sports Programs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Arts Programs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Academic Clubs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Instructional Methods
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Pedagogical Approaches
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Technology Integration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Differentiated Instruction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Peer Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Mechanisms of Peer Influence
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Academic Peer Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Learning Spillovers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Academic Competition
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Collaborative Learning
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Behavioral Peer Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Classroom Behavior
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Study Habits
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Educational Aspirations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Social Learning Theory
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Modeling and Imitation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Social Reinforcement
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Endogeneity and Identification Challenges
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. The Reflection Problem
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Simultaneous Determination
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Identification Issues
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Sorting and Selection Bias
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Non-Random Peer Assignment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Residential Sorting
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. School Choice Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Correlated Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Common Shocks
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Shared Environment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Empirical Evidence on Peer Composition
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Random Assignment Studies
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Experimental Evidence
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Quasi-Experimental Studies
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Natural Experiments
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Policy-Induced Variation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Institutional Changes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Peer Ability Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. High-Achieving Peer Benefits
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Low-Achieving Peer Costs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Peer Socioeconomic Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Income Mix Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Cultural Capital Spillovers

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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        5. Markets for Education