Bioengineering

  1. Major Application Areas in Bioengineering
    1. Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
      1. The Tissue Engineering Triad
        1. Scaffolds
          1. Scaffold Design Criteria
            1. Biocompatibility
              1. Mechanical Properties
                1. Porosity and Architecture
                  1. Degradation Rate
                  2. Natural Polymers
                    1. Collagen
                      1. Type I Collagen
                        1. Crosslinking
                          1. Processing Methods
                          2. Gelatin
                            1. Gel Strength
                              1. Modification
                              2. Alginate
                                1. Gelation Mechanisms
                                  1. Calcium Crosslinking
                                    1. Cell Encapsulation
                                  2. Synthetic Polymers
                                    1. Polylactic Acid
                                      1. Degradation Kinetics
                                        1. Mechanical Properties
                                          1. Processing
                                          2. Polyglycolic Acid
                                            1. Degradation Rate
                                              1. Copolymers
                                              2. Polycaprolactone
                                                1. Slow Degradation
                                                  1. Flexibility
                                                    1. Drug Delivery
                                                  2. Scaffold Fabrication Techniques
                                                    1. Electrospinning
                                                      1. Process Parameters
                                                        1. Fiber Morphology
                                                        2. 3D Bioprinting
                                                          1. Printing Technologies
                                                            1. Bioinks
                                                              1. Cell Viability
                                                              2. Solvent Casting and Particulate Leaching
                                                                1. Pore Formation
                                                                  1. Porosity Control
                                                                    1. Limitations
                                                                2. Cells
                                                                  1. Cell Sourcing
                                                                    1. Autologous Cells
                                                                      1. Advantages
                                                                        1. Limitations
                                                                          1. Harvesting Methods
                                                                          2. Allogeneic Cells
                                                                            1. Immunological Considerations
                                                                              1. Screening Requirements
                                                                              2. Xenogeneic Cells
                                                                                1. Species Barriers
                                                                                  1. Zoonotic Risks
                                                                                    1. Genetic Modification
                                                                                  2. Stem Cells
                                                                                    1. Embryonic Stem Cells
                                                                                      1. Pluripotency
                                                                                        1. Differentiation Protocols
                                                                                          1. Ethical Considerations
                                                                                          2. Adult Stem Cells
                                                                                            1. Mesenchymal Stem Cells
                                                                                              1. Hematopoietic Stem Cells
                                                                                                1. Neural Stem Cells
                                                                                                2. Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells
                                                                                                  1. Reprogramming Factors
                                                                                                    1. Generation Methods
                                                                                                  2. Cell Culture and Expansion
                                                                                                    1. Culture Media and Conditions
                                                                                                      1. Serum-Free Media
                                                                                                        1. Growth Factors
                                                                                                          1. pH and Osmolality
                                                                                                          2. Bioreactor Systems
                                                                                                            1. Spinner Flasks
                                                                                                              1. Perfusion Bioreactors
                                                                                                                1. Microcarrier Systems
                                                                                                                2. Cell Differentiation and Maturation
                                                                                                                  1. Differentiation Protocols
                                                                                                                    1. Maturation Markers
                                                                                                                      1. Functional Assessment
                                                                                                                  2. Bioactive Molecules
                                                                                                                    1. Growth Factors
                                                                                                                      1. Bone Morphogenetic Proteins
                                                                                                                        1. Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor
                                                                                                                          1. Fibroblast Growth Factors
                                                                                                                            1. Delivery Systems
                                                                                                                            2. Cytokines
                                                                                                                              1. Interleukins
                                                                                                                                1. Interferons
                                                                                                                                  1. Tumor Necrosis Factors
                                                                                                                                  2. Gene Delivery
                                                                                                                                    1. Viral Vectors
                                                                                                                                      1. Retroviruses
                                                                                                                                        1. Adenoviruses
                                                                                                                                          1. Lentiviruses
                                                                                                                                          2. Non-viral Methods
                                                                                                                                            1. Lipofection
                                                                                                                                              1. Electroporation
                                                                                                                                                1. Microinjection
                                                                                                                                          3. Applications in Specific Tissues
                                                                                                                                            1. Skin Engineering
                                                                                                                                              1. Epidermal Substitutes
                                                                                                                                                1. Dermal Substitutes
                                                                                                                                                  1. Full-Thickness Skin
                                                                                                                                                    1. Wound Healing
                                                                                                                                                    2. Bone Regeneration
                                                                                                                                                      1. Bone Grafts
                                                                                                                                                        1. Bone Morphogenetic Proteins
                                                                                                                                                          1. Calcium Phosphate Ceramics
                                                                                                                                                            1. Mechanical Stimulation
                                                                                                                                                            2. Cartilage Regeneration
                                                                                                                                                              1. Chondrocyte Culture
                                                                                                                                                                1. Scaffold Materials
                                                                                                                                                                  1. Mechanical Loading
                                                                                                                                                                    1. Joint Resurfacing
                                                                                                                                                                    2. Vascular Grafts
                                                                                                                                                                      1. Small-Diameter Grafts
                                                                                                                                                                        1. Endothelialization
                                                                                                                                                                          1. Compliance Matching
                                                                                                                                                                            1. Patency Rates
                                                                                                                                                                            2. Nerve Conduits
                                                                                                                                                                              1. Nerve Guidance Channels
                                                                                                                                                                                1. Schwann Cell Seeding
                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Growth Factor Delivery
                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Functional Recovery
                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Organoids
                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Organ-on-Chip
                                                                                                                                                                                        1. 3D Culture Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Disease Modeling
                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Drug Testing
                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Biomedical Devices and Medical Implants
                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Cardiovascular Devices
                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Artificial Heart Valves
                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Mechanical Valves
                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Ball-and-Cage Valves
                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Tilting-Disk Valves
                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Bileaflet Valves
                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Anticoagulation Requirements
                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Bioprosthetic Valves
                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Porcine Valves
                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Bovine Pericardial Valves
                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Durability Issues
                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Calcification
                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Pacemakers
                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Sensing and Pacing Mechanisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Demand Pacing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Rate-Responsive Pacing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Dual-Chamber Pacing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Power Sources
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Lithium Batteries
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Battery Life
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Replacement Procedures
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Defibrillators
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillators
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Arrhythmia Detection
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Shock Delivery
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Programming
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Stents
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Coronary Stents
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Bare Metal Stents
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Drug-Eluting Stents
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Restenosis Prevention
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Peripheral Stents
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Carotid Stents
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Renal Stents
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Limb Stents
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Vascular Grafts
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Synthetic Grafts
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Biological Grafts
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Graft Patency
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Complications
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Ventricular Assist Devices
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Types of VADs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Left Ventricular Assist Devices
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Right Ventricular Assist Devices
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Biventricular Assist Devices
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Indications and Limitations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Bridge to Transplant
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Destination Therapy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Complications
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Orthopedic Implants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Joint Replacements
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Hip Replacement
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Femoral Components
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Acetabular Components
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Bearing Surfaces
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Fixation Methods
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Knee Replacement
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Total Knee Replacement
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Partial Knee Replacement
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Revision Surgery
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Bone Plates and Screws
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Fracture Fixation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Plate Design
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Screw Types
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Biomechanical Considerations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Fixation Devices
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Intramedullary Nails
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Nail Design
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Locking Mechanisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Insertion Techniques
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. External Fixators
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Frame Types
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Pin Placement
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Complications
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Artificial Organs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Artificial Kidney
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Hemodialysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Dialyzer Design
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Membrane Materials
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Dialysis Adequacy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Peritoneal Dialysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Catheter Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Dialysis Solutions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Complications
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Artificial Pancreas
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Insulin Pumps
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Pump Technology
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Infusion Sets
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Programming
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Glucose Sensors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Continuous Glucose Monitoring
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Sensor Accuracy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Calibration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Artificial Lungs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Oxygenator Design
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Blood Pumps
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Circuit Management
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Drug Delivery Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Controlled Release Mechanisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Diffusion-Controlled Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Matrix Tablets
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Reservoir Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Release Kinetics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Degradation-Controlled Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Biodegradable Polymers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Erosion Mechanisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Release Profiles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Targeted Drug Delivery
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Ligand-Targeted Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Antibody Conjugates
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Receptor Targeting
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Specificity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Stimuli-Responsive Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. pH-Responsive
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Temperature-Responsive
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Enzyme-Responsive
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Liposomes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Lipid Composition
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Drug Encapsulation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Targeting Strategies
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Polymeric Nanoparticles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Polymer Selection
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Particle Preparation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Drug Loading
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Dendrimers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Dendrimer Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Drug Conjugation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Biocompatibility
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Diagnostic Devices
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Point-of-Care Diagnostics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Lateral Flow Assays
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Test Principles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Assay Development
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Performance Characteristics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Portable Analyzers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Blood Gas Analyzers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Glucose Meters
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Cardiac Markers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Lab-on-a-Chip
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Microfluidic Principles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Fluid Behavior
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Channel Design
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Flow Control
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Device Fabrication
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Soft Lithography
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Micromachining
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Bonding Techniques
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Microfluidics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Fluid Manipulation at Microscale
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Laminar Flow
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Mixing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Separation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Applications in Diagnostics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Cell Sorting
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. PCR Amplification
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Immunoassays
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        3. Genetic Engineering and Synthetic Biology
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Recombinant DNA Technology
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Restriction Enzymes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Enzyme Types
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Recognition Sequences
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Cleavage Patterns
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Ligation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. DNA Ligases
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Ligation Conditions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Vector Preparation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Cloning Vectors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Plasmids
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Bacteriophages
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Cosmids
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Artificial Chromosomes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Transformation and Transfection
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Bacterial Transformation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Mammalian Transfection
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Efficiency Optimization
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Polymerase Chain Reaction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. PCR Principles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Denaturation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Annealing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Extension
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Quantitative PCR
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Real-Time PCR
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Fluorescent Probes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Data Analysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Gene Editing Technologies
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. CRISPR-Cas9
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Mechanism of Action
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Guide RNA Design
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Cas9 Nuclease
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. DNA Repair
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Design and Delivery
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Target Selection
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Off-Target Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Delivery Methods
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. TALENs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Structure and Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. TAL Effectors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Nuclease Domain
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Specificity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Zinc-Finger Nucleases
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Structure and Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Zinc-Finger Domains
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Nuclease Domain
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Engineering
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Synthetic Biology Principles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Genetic Circuits
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Logic Gates
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Oscillators
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Switches
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Biological Switches
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Toggle Switches
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Inducible Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Repressible Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Minimal Genomes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Essential Genes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Genome Reduction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Synthetic Genomes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Standard Biological Parts
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. BioBricks
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Part Registry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Characterization
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Assembly
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Modular Design
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Standardization
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Interoperability
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Abstraction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Applications
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Biopharmaceutical Production
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Recombinant Proteins
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Monoclonal Antibodies
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Vaccines
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Gene Therapy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Gene Replacement
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Gene Silencing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Gene Editing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Genetically Modified Organisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Agricultural GMOs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Herbicide Resistance
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Insect Resistance
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Nutritional Enhancement
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Industrial GMOs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Biofuel Production
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Chemical Synthesis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Bioremediation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            3. Biopharmaceutical and Cellular Engineering
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Upstream Processing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Cell Line Development
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Selection and Screening
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Clonal Selection
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. High-Producing Clones
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Stability Testing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Genetic Engineering of Cell Lines
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Transfection Methods
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Selection Markers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Gene Amplification
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Bioreactor Design and Operation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Types of Bioreactors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Stirred Tank Reactors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Airlift Reactors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Packed Bed Reactors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Scale-Up Considerations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Mixing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Mass Transfer
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Heat Transfer
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Media Formulation and Optimization
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Nutrient Requirements
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Carbon Sources
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Nitrogen Sources
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Vitamins and Minerals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Serum-Free Media
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Growth Factors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Hormones
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Attachment Factors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Downstream Processing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Cell Separation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Centrifugation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Disc Stack Centrifuges
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Tubular Centrifuges
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Continuous Operation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Filtration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Microfiltration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Depth Filtration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Tangential Flow Filtration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Cell Lysis Methods
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Mechanical Disruption
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Homogenization
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Sonication
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Bead Milling
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Chemical and Enzymatic Lysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Detergents
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Osmotic Lysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Enzymatic Digestion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Chromatography
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Affinity Chromatography
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Protein A
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Immobilized Metal Affinity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Immunoaffinity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Ion Exchange Chromatography
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Cation Exchange
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Anion Exchange
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Gradient Elution
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Size Exclusion Chromatography
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Gel Filtration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Column Selection
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Buffer Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Filtration and Purification
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Ultrafiltration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Membrane Selection
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Concentration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Diafiltration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Microfiltration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Sterile Filtration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Clarification
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Membrane Fouling
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Final Product Purification
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Polishing Steps
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Viral Clearance
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Formulation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Production of Biologics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Monoclonal Antibodies
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Hybridoma Technology
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Recombinant Antibodies
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Antibody Engineering
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Therapeutic Proteins
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Insulin
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Growth Hormones
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Cytokines
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Vaccines
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Live Attenuated Vaccines
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Inactivated Vaccines
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Subunit Vaccines
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. DNA Vaccines
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Cell-Based Therapies
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. CAR-T Cell Therapy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. T Cell Engineering
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Manufacturing Process
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Clinical Applications
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Stem Cell Therapies
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Mesenchymal Stem Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Hematopoietic Stem Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            3. Agricultural and Environmental Bioengineering
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Agricultural Applications
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Genetically Engineered Crops
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Traits and Benefits
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Herbicide Tolerance
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Insect Resistance
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Disease Resistance
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Nutritional Enhancement
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Regulatory Considerations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Safety Assessment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Environmental Impact
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Labeling Requirements
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Bio-pesticides
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Microbial Pesticides
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Biochemical Pesticides
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Plant-Incorporated Protectants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Bio-fertilizers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Phosphate-Solubilizing Bacteria
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Mycorrhizal Fungi
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Animal Health Diagnostics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Disease Detection
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Vaccine Development
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Therapeutic Proteins
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Environmental Applications
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Bioremediation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Microbial Remediation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Biodegradation Pathways
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Bioaugmentation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Biostimulation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Phytoremediation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Phytoextraction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Phytostabilization
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Rhizofiltration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Biofuels and Bioenergy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Bioethanol
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Fermentation Process
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Feedstock Options
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Cellulosic Ethanol
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Biodiesel
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Transesterification
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Feedstock Sources
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Production Process
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Algal Biofuels
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Algae Cultivation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Lipid Extraction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Conversion Processes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Biosensors for Pollutant Detection
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Heavy Metal Detection
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Organic Pollutant Detection
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Pathogen Detection
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Waste Treatment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Biological Wastewater Treatment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Activated Sludge Process
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Anaerobic Digestion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Nutrient Removal
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Solid Waste Management
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Composting
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Anaerobic Digestion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Landfill Gas Recovery

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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          Next

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          5. Professional and Ethical Considerations