Bioengineering

2.

Core Bioengineering Principles

2.1.

2.1.1.

Solid Biomechanics

2.1.1.1.

Stress and Strain

2.1.1.1.1.

2.1.1.1.2.

2.1.1.1.3.

Strain Components

2.1.1.1.4.

Stress-Strain Relationships

2.1.1.2.

Constitutive Laws

2.1.1.2.1.

2.1.1.2.2.

Nonlinear Material Behavior

2.1.1.2.3.

Viscoelastic Models

2.1.1.2.4.

Hyperelastic Models

2.1.1.3.

Mechanical Properties of Tissues

2.1.1.3.1.

2.1.1.3.1.1.

Young's Modulus

2.1.1.3.1.2.

Poisson's Ratio

2.1.1.3.1.3.

2.1.1.3.2.

Viscoelasticity

2.1.1.3.2.1.

2.1.1.3.2.2.

Stress Relaxation

2.1.1.3.2.3.

Dynamic Properties

2.1.1.3.3.

2.1.1.3.3.1.

2.1.1.3.3.2.

Ultimate Strength

2.1.1.3.3.3.

Failure Mechanisms

2.1.1.4.

2.1.1.4.1.

Bone Structure and Mechanics

2.1.1.4.1.1.

2.1.1.4.1.2.

Trabecular Bone

2.1.1.4.1.3.

Bone Remodeling

2.1.1.4.1.4.

Fracture Mechanics

2.1.1.4.2.

Teeth Structure and Mechanics

2.1.1.4.2.1.

Enamel Properties

2.1.1.4.2.2.

Dentin Properties

2.1.1.4.2.3.

2.1.1.5.

2.1.1.5.1.

2.1.1.5.1.1.

2.1.1.5.1.2.

2.1.1.5.1.3.

Mechanical Testing

2.1.1.5.2.

Muscle Mechanics

2.1.1.5.2.1.

Skeletal Muscle

2.1.1.5.2.2.

2.1.1.5.2.3.

2.1.1.5.2.4.

Force-Length Relationships

2.1.1.5.3.

Cartilage Mechanics

2.1.1.5.3.1.

Articular Cartilage

2.1.1.5.3.2.

2.1.1.5.3.3.

Elastic Cartilage

2.1.1.5.3.4.

Biphasic Theory

2.1.2.

Fluid Biomechanics

2.1.2.1.

Biofluid Dynamics

2.1.2.1.1.

Principles of Fluid Flow in the Body

2.1.2.1.1.1.

Conservation Laws

2.1.2.1.1.2.

Boundary Conditions

2.1.2.1.1.3.

2.1.2.1.2.

2.1.2.1.2.1.

2.1.2.1.2.2.

Vascular Resistance

2.1.2.1.2.3.

2.1.2.2.

Blood Flow and Rheology

2.1.2.2.1.

Blood Composition and Properties

2.1.2.2.1.1.

Plasma Properties

2.1.2.2.1.2.

Cellular Components

2.1.2.2.1.3.

Hematocrit Effects

2.1.2.2.2.

Non-Newtonian Flow

2.1.2.2.2.1.

Shear-Thinning Behavior

2.1.2.2.2.2.

2.1.2.2.2.3.

2.1.2.2.3.

Microcirculation

2.1.2.2.3.1.

2.1.2.2.3.2.

Cell Deformation

2.1.2.2.3.3.

Oxygen Transport

2.1.2.3.

Airflow in Lungs

2.1.2.3.1.

Airway Structure

2.1.2.3.1.1.

Conducting Airways

2.1.2.3.1.2.

Respiratory Zone

2.1.2.3.1.3.

Branching Patterns

2.1.2.3.2.

Mechanics of Breathing

2.1.2.3.2.1.

2.1.2.3.2.2.

2.1.2.3.2.3.

Respiratory Muscles

2.1.2.3.3.

Gas Transport and Exchange

2.1.2.3.3.1.

2.1.2.3.3.2.

2.1.2.3.3.3.

Ventilation-Perfusion Matching

2.1.3.

Cellular and Molecular Biomechanics

2.1.3.1.

Cytoskeletal Mechanics

2.1.3.1.1.

Actin Filaments

2.1.3.1.1.1.

Structure and Assembly

2.1.3.1.1.2.

Mechanical Properties

2.1.3.1.1.3.

2.1.3.1.2.

2.1.3.1.2.1.

Structure and Dynamics

2.1.3.1.2.2.

Mechanical Properties

2.1.3.1.2.3.

Intracellular Transport

2.1.3.1.3.

Intermediate Filaments

2.1.3.1.3.1.

Types and Distribution

2.1.3.1.3.2.

Mechanical Properties

2.1.3.1.3.3.

Cellular Functions

2.1.3.2.

Cell Adhesion and Motility

2.1.3.2.1.

Cell-Cell Adhesion

2.1.3.2.1.1.

Adherens Junctions

2.1.3.2.1.2.

Tight Junctions

2.1.3.2.1.3.

2.1.3.2.2.

Cell-Extracellular Matrix Adhesion

2.1.3.2.2.1.

2.1.3.2.2.2.

Focal Adhesions

2.1.3.2.2.3.

2.1.3.2.3.

Mechanisms of Cell Movement

2.1.3.2.3.1.

2.1.3.2.3.2.

2.1.3.2.3.3.

2.1.3.3.

Mechanotransduction

2.1.3.3.1.

Mechanosensitive Proteins

2.1.3.3.1.1.

2.1.3.3.1.2.

2.1.3.3.1.3.

2.1.3.3.2.

Signal Transduction Pathways

2.1.3.3.2.1.

Force-Induced Signaling

2.1.3.3.2.2.

Calcium Signaling

2.1.3.3.2.3.

Gene Expression Changes

2.1.3.3.3.

Cellular Responses to Mechanical Stimuli

2.1.3.3.3.1.

2.1.3.3.3.2.

Differentiation

2.1.3.3.3.3.

2.2.

Biotransport Phenomena

2.2.1.

Mass Transfer in Biological Systems

2.2.1.1.

2.2.1.1.1.

2.2.1.1.1.1.

2.2.1.1.1.2.

2.2.1.1.1.3.

Steady-State Diffusion

2.2.1.1.2.

Diffusion in Tissues

2.2.1.1.2.1.

Effective Diffusivity

2.2.1.1.2.2.

2.2.1.1.2.3.

Porosity Effects

2.2.1.2.

2.2.1.2.1.

Bulk Flow in Blood

2.2.1.2.1.1.

Convective Transport

2.2.1.2.1.2.

2.2.1.2.2.

Bulk Flow in Lymph

2.2.1.2.2.1.

Lymphatic Circulation

2.2.1.2.2.2.

Interstitial Flow

2.2.1.3.

Membrane Transport

2.2.1.3.1.

Passive Transport

2.2.1.3.1.1.

Simple Diffusion

2.2.1.3.1.2.

2.2.1.3.1.3.

2.2.1.3.2.

Active Transport

2.2.1.3.2.1.

Primary Active Transport

2.2.1.3.2.2.

Secondary Active Transport

2.2.1.3.2.3.

ATP-Dependent Pumps

2.2.1.3.3.

Facilitated Diffusion

2.2.1.3.3.1.

Carrier Proteins

2.2.1.3.3.2.

Channel Proteins

2.2.1.3.3.3.

Saturation Kinetics

2.2.1.4.

Oxygen and Nutrient Transport

2.2.1.4.1.

Oxygen Transport in Blood

2.2.1.4.1.1.

Hemoglobin Binding

2.2.1.4.1.2.

Oxygen-Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve

2.2.1.4.1.3.

Tissue Oxygenation

2.2.1.4.2.

Nutrient Uptake by Cells

2.2.1.4.2.1.

Glucose Transport

2.2.1.4.2.2.

Amino Acid Transport

2.2.1.4.2.3.

Lipid Transport

2.2.2.

Heat Transfer in Biological Systems

2.2.2.1.

Bioheat Transfer Equation

2.2.2.1.1.

Pennes' Equation

2.2.2.1.2.

Heat Sources and Sinks

2.2.2.1.3.

Boundary Conditions

2.2.2.2.

Thermal Conductivity of Tissues

2.2.2.2.1.

Tissue-Specific Properties

2.2.2.2.2.

Temperature Dependence

2.2.2.2.3.

Measurement Methods

2.2.2.3.

Heat Generation in the Body

2.2.2.3.1.

Metabolic Heat Production

2.2.2.3.2.

Exercise-Induced Heat

2.2.2.3.3.

Pathological Heat Generation

2.2.2.4.

Thermal Regulation in the Body

2.2.2.4.1.

Thermoregulatory Mechanisms

2.2.2.4.1.1.

2.2.2.4.1.2.

Vasoconstriction

2.2.2.4.1.3.

2.2.2.4.1.4.

2.2.2.4.2.

Fever and Hypothermia

2.2.2.4.2.1.

Fever Mechanisms

2.2.2.4.2.2.

Hypothermia Effects

2.2.2.4.2.3.

Temperature Monitoring

2.2.2.5.

Therapeutic Applications

2.2.2.5.1.

Hyperthermia Therapy

2.2.2.5.1.1.

Cancer Treatment

2.2.2.5.1.2.

Temperature Control

2.2.2.5.1.3.

Treatment Planning

2.2.2.5.2.

2.2.2.5.2.1.

Tissue Freezing

2.2.2.5.2.2.

Cryoprotectants

2.2.2.5.3.

Thermal Ablation

2.2.2.5.3.1.

Radiofrequency Ablation

2.2.2.5.3.2.

Microwave Ablation

2.2.2.5.3.3.

2.3.

Biomaterials Science

2.3.1.

Classes of Biomaterials

2.3.1.1.

2.3.1.1.1.

Stainless Steel

2.3.1.1.1.1.

2.3.1.1.2.

Titanium Alloys

2.3.1.1.2.1.

2.3.1.1.2.2.

2.3.1.1.2.3.

Biocompatibility

2.3.1.1.3.

Cobalt-Chromium Alloys

2.3.1.1.3.1.

2.3.1.1.3.2.

Wear Resistance

2.3.1.2.

2.3.1.2.1.

2.3.1.2.1.1.

2.3.1.2.2.

2.3.1.2.2.1.

Phase Transformations

2.3.1.2.2.2.

Toughening Mechanisms

2.3.1.2.2.3.

Dental Applications

2.3.1.2.3.

Bioactive Glasses

2.3.1.2.3.1.

2.3.1.2.3.2.

2.3.1.2.3.3.

2.3.1.3.

2.3.1.3.1.

Natural Polymers

2.3.1.3.1.1.

2.3.1.3.1.2.

2.3.1.3.1.3.

Hyaluronic Acid

2.3.1.3.2.

Synthetic Polymers

2.3.1.3.2.1.

2.3.1.3.2.2.

2.3.1.3.2.3.

2.3.1.3.2.4.

Biodegradable Polymers

2.3.1.4.

2.3.1.4.1.

Polymer-Ceramic Composites

2.3.1.4.1.1.

Reinforcement Mechanisms

2.3.1.4.1.2.

Interface Properties

2.3.1.4.2.

Polymer-Metal Composites

2.3.1.4.2.1.

2.3.1.4.2.2.

Particulate Reinforcement

2.3.2.

Biocompatibility

2.3.2.1.

Host Response to Biomaterials

2.3.2.1.1.

Acute Inflammation

2.3.2.1.1.1.

Inflammatory Cascade

2.3.2.1.1.2.

Cellular Response

2.3.2.1.1.3.

2.3.2.1.2.

Chronic Inflammation

2.3.2.1.2.1.

Persistent Inflammation

2.3.2.1.2.2.

Granuloma Formation

2.3.2.1.2.3.

2.3.2.1.3.

Immune Response

2.3.2.1.3.1.

Innate Immunity

2.3.2.1.3.2.

Adaptive Immunity

2.3.2.1.3.3.

Hypersensitivity

2.3.2.2.

Inflammation and Foreign Body Response

2.3.2.2.1.

Foreign Body Giant Cells

2.3.2.2.1.1.

Formation Mechanisms

2.3.2.2.1.2.

Cellular Characteristics

2.3.2.2.1.3.

2.3.2.2.2.

Fibrous Encapsulation

2.3.2.2.2.1.

Capsule Formation

2.3.2.2.2.2.

Thickness Factors

2.3.2.2.2.3.

Long-term Effects

2.3.2.3.

Blood-Material Interactions

2.3.2.3.1.

2.3.2.3.1.1.

Coagulation Cascade

2.3.2.3.1.2.

Platelet Activation

2.3.2.3.1.3.

Thrombus Formation

2.3.2.3.2.

Hemocompatibility

2.3.2.3.2.1.

2.3.2.3.2.2.

Complement Activation

2.3.2.3.2.3.

Testing Methods

2.3.2.4.

Biodegradation and Bioresorption

2.3.2.4.1.

Degradation Mechanisms

2.3.2.4.1.1.

Hydrolytic Degradation

2.3.2.4.1.2.

Enzymatic Degradation

2.3.2.4.1.3.

Oxidative Degradation

2.3.2.4.2.

Testing Methods

2.3.2.4.2.1.

In Vitro Testing

2.3.2.4.2.2.

In Vivo Testing

2.3.2.4.2.3.

Accelerated Testing

2.3.3.

Material Characterization Techniques

2.3.3.1.

Mechanical Testing

2.3.3.1.1.

Tensile Testing

2.3.3.1.1.1.

Stress-Strain Curves

2.3.3.1.1.2.

Elastic Modulus

2.3.3.1.1.3.

Ultimate Strength

2.3.3.1.2.

Compression Testing

2.3.3.1.2.1.

Compressive Strength

2.3.3.1.2.2.

2.3.3.1.2.3.

2.3.3.1.3.

Fatigue Testing

2.3.3.1.3.1.

2.3.3.1.3.2.

2.3.3.1.3.3.

2.3.3.2.

Surface Characterization

2.3.3.2.1.

Microscopy Techniques

2.3.3.2.1.1.

Optical Microscopy

2.3.3.2.1.2.

Electron Microscopy

2.3.3.2.1.3.

Atomic Force Microscopy

2.3.3.2.2.

Spectroscopy Techniques

2.3.3.2.2.1.

X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy

2.3.3.2.2.2.

Infrared Spectroscopy

2.3.3.2.2.3.

Raman Spectroscopy

2.3.3.3.

Chemical Analysis

2.3.3.3.1.

2.3.3.3.1.1.

Gas Chromatography

2.3.3.3.1.2.

Liquid Chromatography

2.3.3.3.1.3.

Ion Chromatography

2.3.3.3.2.

Mass Spectrometry

2.3.3.3.2.1.

Ionization Methods

2.3.3.3.2.2.

2.3.3.4.

Biological Testing

2.3.3.4.1.

Cytotoxicity Testing

2.3.3.4.1.1.

Cell Viability Assays

2.3.3.4.1.2.

Direct Contact Tests

2.3.3.4.1.3.

2.3.3.4.2.

Hemocompatibility Testing

2.3.3.4.2.1.

Hemolysis Tests

2.3.3.4.2.2.

Thrombogenicity Tests

2.3.3.4.2.3.

Complement Activation

2.4.

Bioinstrumentation and Biosensors

2.4.1.

Principles of Measurement Systems

2.4.1.1.

Sensors and Transducers

2.4.1.1.1.

2.4.1.1.2.

Transduction Principles

2.4.1.1.3.

Sensor Characteristics

2.4.1.2.

Signal Conditioning

2.4.1.2.1.

2.4.1.2.2.

2.4.1.2.3.

Analog-to-Digital Conversion

2.4.1.3.

Data Acquisition Systems

2.4.1.3.1.

2.4.1.3.2.

2.4.1.3.3.

2.4.2.

Biopotential Electrodes and Amplifiers

2.4.2.1.

Electrode Types and Placement

2.4.2.1.1.

Surface Electrodes

2.4.2.1.2.

Needle Electrodes

2.4.2.1.3.

Implantable Electrodes

2.4.2.1.4.

Electrode-Skin Interface

2.4.2.2.

Amplifier Design and Noise Reduction

2.4.2.2.1.

Differential Amplifiers

2.4.2.2.2.

Common Mode Rejection

2.4.2.2.3.

2.4.2.2.4.

2.4.2.3.

Electrocardiography

2.4.2.3.1.

2.4.2.3.2.

2.4.2.3.3.

Waveform Analysis

2.4.2.3.4.

Arrhythmia Detection

2.4.2.4.

Electroencephalography

2.4.2.4.1.

2.4.2.4.2.

Electrode Placement

2.4.2.4.3.

Brain Wave Patterns

2.4.2.4.4.

Signal Processing

2.4.2.5.

Electromyography

2.4.2.5.1.

2.4.2.5.2.

Muscle Activation

2.4.2.5.3.

Signal Analysis

2.4.2.5.4.

Clinical Applications

2.4.3.

Biosensor Design

2.4.3.1.

Biorecognition Elements

2.4.3.1.1.

2.4.3.1.1.1.

Enzyme Selection

2.4.3.1.1.2.

Immobilization Methods

2.4.3.1.1.3.

Stability Issues

2.4.3.1.2.

2.4.3.1.2.1.

Monoclonal Antibodies

2.4.3.1.2.2.

Polyclonal Antibodies

2.4.3.1.2.3.

Binding Kinetics

2.4.3.1.3.

2.4.3.1.3.1.

Oligonucleotides

2.4.3.1.3.2.

2.4.3.1.3.3.

2.4.3.2.

Transduction Mechanisms

2.4.3.2.1.

Electrochemical Transducers

2.4.3.2.1.1.

2.4.3.2.1.2.

2.4.3.2.1.3.

2.4.3.2.2.

Optical Transducers

2.4.3.2.2.1.

2.4.3.2.2.2.

2.4.3.2.2.3.

Surface Plasmon Resonance

2.4.3.2.3.

Piezoelectric Transducers

2.4.3.2.3.1.

Quartz Crystal Microbalance

2.4.3.2.3.2.

Surface Acoustic Wave

2.4.3.2.3.3.

Mass Sensitivity

2.4.3.3.

Sensor Calibration and Validation

2.4.3.3.1.

Calibration Curves

2.4.3.3.2.

2.4.3.3.3.

2.4.3.3.4.

2.4.4.

Medical Imaging Principles

2.4.4.1.

2.4.4.1.1.

X-ray Generation and Detection

2.4.4.1.1.1.

2.4.4.1.1.2.

X-ray Detectors

2.4.4.1.1.3.

Image Receptors

2.4.4.1.2.

Image Formation and Contrast

2.4.4.1.2.1.

2.4.4.1.2.2.

Contrast Agents

2.4.4.1.2.3.

2.4.4.2.

Computed Tomography

2.4.4.2.1.

CT Scanner Components

2.4.4.2.1.1.

2.4.4.2.1.2.

2.4.4.2.1.3.

2.4.4.2.2.

Image Reconstruction

2.4.4.2.2.1.

Filtered Back Projection

2.4.4.2.2.2.

Iterative Reconstruction

2.4.4.2.2.3.

3D Reconstruction

2.4.4.3.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

2.4.4.3.1.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Principles

2.4.4.3.1.1.

Magnetic Properties

2.4.4.3.1.2.

Relaxation Times

2.4.4.3.1.3.

Signal Generation

2.4.4.3.2.

MRI Hardware and Sequences

2.4.4.3.2.1.

2.4.4.3.2.2.

2.4.4.3.2.3.

Pulse Sequences

2.4.4.4.

Ultrasound Imaging

2.4.4.4.1.

Acoustic Properties of Tissues

2.4.4.4.1.1.

2.4.4.4.1.2.

Acoustic Impedance

2.4.4.4.1.3.

2.4.4.4.2.

Transducer Design

2.4.4.4.2.1.

Piezoelectric Materials

2.4.4.4.2.2.

2.4.4.4.2.3.

Frequency Selection

2.4.4.4.3.

2.4.4.4.3.1.

2.4.4.4.3.2.

2.4.4.4.3.3.

Doppler Imaging

2.4.4.5.

Nuclear Medicine

2.4.4.5.1.

Positron Emission Tomography

2.4.4.5.1.1.

Positron Annihilation

2.4.4.5.1.2.

Coincidence Detection

2.4.4.5.1.3.

Image Reconstruction

2.4.4.5.2.

Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography

2.4.4.5.2.1.

2.4.4.5.2.2.

2.4.4.5.2.3.

Tomographic Reconstruction

2.4.4.5.3.

Radiotracers and Detection

2.4.4.5.3.1.

Radiopharmaceuticals

2.4.4.5.3.2.

2.4.4.5.3.3.

Imaging Protocols

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