Language Typology

7.

Linguistic Universals

7.1.

Theoretical Foundations

7.1.1.

Defining Universals

7.1.2.

Types of Universal Claims

7.1.3.

Testing Universals

7.1.4.

7.2.

Categories of Universals

7.2.1.

Absolute Universals

7.2.1.1.

Exceptionless Universals

7.2.1.2.

Examples and Evidence

7.2.2.

Statistical Universals

7.2.2.1.

Frequency-Based Universals

7.2.2.2.

Probabilistic Statements

7.2.3.

Implicational Universals

7.2.3.1.

Simple Implications

7.2.3.2.

Complex Implications

7.2.3.3.

Hierarchical Universals

7.3.

Major Universal Hierarchies

7.3.1.

Noun Phrase Accessibility Hierarchy

7.3.2.

Animacy Hierarchy

7.3.3.

7.3.4.

Phonological Hierarchies

7.4.

Explanatory Approaches

7.4.1.

Functional Explanations

7.4.1.1.

Communicative Efficiency

7.4.1.2.

Processing Economy

7.4.1.3.

Frequency Effects

7.4.2.

Cognitive Explanations

7.4.2.1.

Conceptual Structure

7.4.2.2.

Learning Constraints

7.4.2.3.

Memory Limitations

7.4.3.

Diachronic Explanations

7.4.3.1.

Grammaticalization Paths

7.4.3.2.

Sound Change Patterns

7.4.3.3.

Analogical Change

7.4.4.

Physiological Explanations

7.4.4.1.

Articulatory Constraints

7.4.4.2.

Perceptual Constraints

7.4.4.3.

Neural Processing

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6. Semantic and Lexical Typology

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8. Advanced Topics and Applications