Environmental Chemistry

1. Aquatic Chemistry
   1. Water Composition and Properties
      1. Physical and Chemical Properties of Water
         1. Polarity and hydrogen bonding
         2. High specific heat capacity
         3. Surface tension and capillary action
         4. Solvent properties
      2. Dissolved Organic Materials
         1. Natural organic matter (NOM)
         2. Humic substances and their role
         3. Influence on water color and taste
      3. Dissolved Inorganic Materials
         1. Major ions (calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium)
         2. Trace elements and their significance
         3. Ionic strength and salinity
   2. Chemical Processes in Aquatic Systems
      1. Acid-Base Equilibria
         1. pH and its measurement
         2. Alkalinity and buffering capacity
         3. Carbonate system dynamics
            1. Bicarbonate, carbonate equilibria
            2. Ocean acidification impacts
      2. Redox Reactions
         1. Oxidizing and reducing agents in water
         2. Role of redox potential (Eh)
         3. Anoxic vs. oxic conditions
         4. Common redox reactions (iron, sulfur)
      3. Complexation and Precipitation
         1. Ligand-binding and metal complexation
         2. Solubility product and supersaturation
         3. Precipitation and dissolution cycles
   3. Water Pollutants
      1. Sources
         1. Industrial discharge (effluents)
         2. Agricultural runoff (fertilizers, pesticides)
         3. Urban stormwater (road runoff, sewage infiltration)
      2. Types
         1. Heavy Metals
            1. Sources (natural, anthropogenic)
            2. Toxicity and bioavailability
            3. Remediation techniques
         2. Organic Pollutants
            1. Types (PAHs, PCBs, VOCs)
            2. Transport and fate in aquatic systems
            3. Degradation pathways
         3. Pesticides
            1. Types (herbicides, insecticides)
            2. Environmental persistence
            3. Impact on non-target organisms
   4. Eutrophication and Its Effects
      1. Nutrient Loading
         1. Sources of excess nitrogen and phosphorus
         2. Role of detergents and fertilizers
      2. Algal Blooms
         1. Mechanisms of bloom formation
         2. Harmful algal blooms (HABs) and toxins
      3. Oxygen Depletion
         1. Formation of hypoxic and anoxic zones
         2. Impact on aquatic life
      4. Management and Mitigation Strategies
         1. Reduction of nutrient input
         2. Restoration of affected water bodies
   5. Water Treatment and Purification Methods
      1. Chemical Treatment Processes
         1. Coagulation and flocculation
            1. Mechanism of particle aggregation
            2. Common coagulants used
         2. Chlorination and disinfectant by-products (DBPs)
            1. Modes of action
            2. Concerns over by-products
         3. Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs)
            1. Mechanistic approach (ozone, UV radiation)
            2. Applications and limitations
      2. Physical Treatment Processes
         1. Filtration and membrane technologies
            1. Types (microfiltration, ultrafiltration)
            2. Fouling and maintenance concerns
         2. Sedimentation
            1. Theory and design of settling basins
            2. Clarifier functionality and efficiency
      3. Sewage Treatment
         1. Primary Treatment
            1. Screening and grit removal
            2. Primary settling tanks
         2. Secondary Treatment
            1. Biological treatment methods (activated sludge, trickling filters)
            2. Microbial communities involved
         3. Tertiary Treatment
            1. Nutrient removal (denitrification, phosphorus removal)
            2. Advanced filtration methods for final polishing
      4. Emerging Techniques
         1. Constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment
         2. Use of biofilters and bioswales
         3. Innovative desalination technologies (reverse osmosis, distillation)